ii!Z-icmiu^  -^i^ipi' 


-CM^C-- 


THE   THEORV 


THE  SCHOOL. 


Howard  Sandison, 

Department  of  Psychology  and  Didactics, 
Indiana  State  Normal  School. 


The  demand  of  the  age,  in  education,  is  the  "practical."    The  most  prac- 

ticSl  education  that  a  child  can  receive  is  that  education  which  sends 

him  forth  with  a  skilled  mind,  trained  to  think  accurately.    It 

is  a  matter  of  comparative  Indifference  whether  the 

Period  of  Preparation— that  of  the  Family, 

Kindergarten  and  School— gives  amount 

0/ kncwledge,  i.e.,  a/«// mind. 


ai:i)ir5  QEbition. 

KKVI8ED   AND   ENLARGED. 


C.    W.    MOWN,    PMINTIN   AND   tlNOCn,   TtRRE    HAUTt,   IMO. 

1886. 


1  BlOlb 


/-.  -  / 


Copyright,  1885, 

BY 

Howard  Sandison. 


SOURCES  AND  REFERENCES. 


Prominent  among  the  sources  and  references  con- 
sidered, are  pamphlets  and  school  reports  by  W.  T. 
Harris;  the  principal  American  and  English  kindergar- 
ten works;  Notes  on  Theory,  by  Wm.  A.  Jones  (first 
President  of  the  Indiana  State  Normal  School) ;  Murison 
on  Language;  Geography,  by  Morell;  The  Cyclopedia 
of  Education;  tte  educational  works  of  Laurie,  Bain, 
Currie,  Quick,  Thring  and  Fitch;  Notes  of  Talks  on 
Teaching,  by  L.  E.  Patridge;  the  Practical  Teacher,  a 
paper  edited  by  F.  W.  Parker;  Rousseau's  Emile; 
Teaching  Methods,  by  J.  H.  Hoose;  The  Training 
System,  by  D.  Stow;  Porter's  Elements  of  Intellectual 
Science;  Everett's  Science  of  Thought,  and  Hegel's 
Philosophy  of  History. 


5442G9 


PREFACE  TO  THIRD  EDITION. 


Originality,  except  in  certain  features,  is  not  claimed 
for  the  theory  as  set  forth  in  the  following  pages.  The 
work  is  in  part  written  by  the  author,  and  to  a  degree, 
arranged  and  compiled ;  the  thought  being  in  a  certain 
sense  the  joint  product  of  a  study  of  some  of  the  lead- 
ing works  on  education,  experience  in  teaching,  super- 
vising, and  preparing  students  for  work  in  the  common 
schools. 

Selections  from  other  works  that  are  substantially 
unmodified,  are  indicated  by  quotation  marks,  or  by 
smaller  type;  those  that  have  been  modified  to  a  degree, 
by  half  quotations.  In  many  cases,  the  thought  and  the 
language  are  largely  those  of  another,  but  both  have  been 
recast,  and  to  some  extent  newly  applied.  This  is  indi- 
cated by  the  name  at  the  foot  of  the  page.  In  many 
unindicated  places  the  thought  and  the  language  were 
not  originally  the  writer's,  but  from  long  consideration 
and  usage  have  become  a  part  of  his  thought  and  mode 
of  expression. 

There  is  no  claim  to  fullness  of  treatment.  The  book 
contains  merely  an  outline  that  may  form  the  basis  for 
a  discussion  of  the  theory  of  the  school. 

.  A  comprehension  of  the  external  stmcture  of  the  work 
will  be  assisted  by  the  following  statements : — 


PHEFACK 


1.  In  the  co-ordination  and  subordination  of  topics 
the  Roman  symbol  indicates  the  main  heading ;  subor- 
dinate to  that  is  the  Arabic  symbol :  next  is  the  letter ; 
subordinate  to  that  is  the  Arabic  symbol  in  parenthesis; 
subordinate  to  that,  the  letter  in  parenthesis ;  then  the 
Arabic  symbol  prime ;  the  letter  prime ;  the  Arabic 
symbol  prime  in  parenthesis,  etc;  appearing  thus : — 

I. 
1. 
a. 

(1) 
(a) 
V. 
a'. 

(10 

(aO 

2.  The  work,  being  a  text-hook,  has  three  features : — 

a.  Thoughts  presented  so  as  to  require  but  slight 
elaboration. 

b.  Thoughts  presented  in  such  a  way  as  to  require 
considerable  elaboration. 

c.  Thoughts  suggested  in  a  manner  that  necessi- 
tates an  almost  independent  working  out  by  the  student 
or  reader. 

3.  The  various  methods  that  are  presented  in  Read- 
ing and  in  Writing  are  given  in  order  to  show  the  growth 
as  to  method  in  those  subjects  and  also  to  furnish  ground 
for  comparison.  The  different  methods  are  given  in 
Reading  for  the  additional  purpose  of  submitting  them 
to  the  test  of  the  principles  given. 


PREFACE.  7 

In  the  case  of  each  subject,  the  last  method  that  is  pre- 
sented, is  the  one  recommended.  It  is  needless  to  say 
that  the  thought  to  be  held  by  the  one  who  studies  these 
methods  should  be  not  their  adoption  but  their  adapta- 
tion to  the  needs  and  peculiarities  of  his  particular  school. 

To  obtain  an  adequate  insight  into  the  internal  or 
thought  structure^  the  following  thoughts  must  be  grasp- 
ed:— 

1.  The  individual  mind  with  its  inherited  habits 
and  tendencies  is  the  true  subject  of  education. 

2.  The  condition  of  education  is  the  self-activity 
of  the  mind,  and  the  goal  of  education  is  self-direc- 
tion. 

3.  In  the  educational  process  of  leading  the  mind 
from  self-activity  t^  self-direction,  the  various  subjects,  as 
geography,  grammar,  etc.,  are  instruments,  not  ends,  or, 
if  ends,  subordinate  ones ;  i.e.,  the  main  aim  of  a  course 
of  study  is  development  ;  a  subject  is  taught,  not  for 
the  knowledge  that  it  contains  (except  incidentally)  but 
mainly  for  the  development  it  affords  the  mind;  the 
true  question  in  regard  to  each  thought  or  idea  dealt 
with  is  not  How  can  the  child  be  led  to  most  clearly 
see  this  thought  or  idea?  but  how  can  this  thought  or 

IDEA  BE  presented  SO  AS  TO  CONFER  THE  HIGHEST  DEGREE 
OF  TRAINING  THAT  IT  IS  FITTED  TO  GIVE? 

4.  The  main  defect  of  the  schools  is  the  placing  of 
stress  upon  mere  expression,  instead  of  upon  thought 
and  thinking.  The  different  manuals  and  outlines  of 
courses  of  study  are  unconscious  witnesses  of  the  truth 
of  this  proposition  in  all  such  directions  as : — 


8  PREFACE. 


First  Year— Number.  Take  the  addition  of  I's,  2's,  3's 
and  4's;  Arabic  figures — (above  4,  mere  verbalism);  Roman 
numerals — (Above  IV,  mere  verbalism).   Or  the  following  : 

First  Year — Number.  Take  numbers  to  5  by  the  Grube 
method;  Roman  numerals — (above  F,  mere  expression); 
the  Arabic  figures ;  count  to  one  hundred.  (Both  the 
latter  mere  form  above  5.) 

Such  work  tends  to  cultivate  the  habit  "always  pre- 
valent in  civilized  life,  of  talking  fluently  without  hav- 
ing anything  to  say." 

Goethe  saw  the  presence  of  this  defect  in  the  German 
Universities,  and  made  Mephistopheles  the  strong  advo- 
cate of  it : — 

Mephistopheles.— ^^o  sum  up  all— To  words  hold  fast ! 
Then  the  safe  gate  securely  passed, 
You'll  reach  the  fane  of  certainty  at  last. 

Siitdeni.— But  then  some  meaning  must  the  words  convey. 

Meph.— Right !  but  o'er-anxious  thought  you'll  find  of  no  avail, 
For  there  precisely  where  ideas  fail, 
A  word  comes  opportunely  into  play. 
Most  admirable  weapons  words  are  found, 
On  words  a  system  we  securely  ground. 
In  words  we  can  conveniently  believe. 
Nor  of  a  single  jot  can  we  a  7wrd?  bereave. 

5.  The  true  reform  that  seems  requisite  in  the  edu- 
cational process,  is  the  turning  from  this  too  exclusive 
consideration  of  expression — words,  phrases,  defini- 
tions, RULES,  ETC.,  to  that  kind  of  work  that  will  truly 
EDUCATE  the  child's  mind,  by  leading  it  to  penetrate  the 
"the  hardened  crust  of  verbalism  "  and  touch  and  be 
touched  by  the  essence,  the  thought,  the  reality. 


SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I.  Page  17. 


SUBJECT   OF   EDUCATION. 


Subject  stated;  organism;  the  human  element;  the  two 
stages  of  education;  the  things  consequently  manifest;  the 
sensibilities  the  avenue  to  the  intellect ;  ways  of  viewing  mind ; 
subi'ect  re-stated ;  the  teacher  and  the  study  of  mind ;  infer- 
ences—as to  number  of  pupils  to  a  teacher — as  to  promotion  of 
teacher  with  grade — as  to  number ,of  regular  studies ;  the  spon- 
taneous memory — when  active — inferences ;  the  imagination — 
when  active— la ws-»mode8  of  cultivation;  the  undeveloped 
state  of  the  logical  faculty— the  two  requirements;  power  to 
continuously  attend  not  natural — inattention,  how  fostered; 
educational  truths  furnished  by  a  study  of  mind;  observation- 
its  relation  to  education— example  ;  reflections  in  regard  to  ex- 
ample ;  re-8tatement  of  educational  truths. 


CHAPTER  11.  Page  52. 

AIM   OF   EDUCATION. 

Things  to  be  understood  in  order  to  comprehend  the  aim — 
final  cause — aim  stated — rational  freedom — aim  stated — the 
substrate  of  all  things— aim  stated— the  two  kinds  of  power- 
aim  stated;  relation  of  intellect  and  character;  statement  of  aim 
of  education — by  Comenius — by  Rousseau — by  Pestalozzi— by 
Froebel— by  Stow— by  Carrie— by  Laurie— by  Jevons— by  Page 
—by  Huntington. 


10  •      mMMARY  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  III.  Page  81. 

PEINCIPLE  AND  CONDITION  OP  EDUCATION. 

Power  to  attain  a  great  amount  of  knowledge;  power  to  attain 
growth;  self -activity;  intellectual  self-activity;  moral  self-activ- 
ity; volitional  self-activity;  reflex  influence  of  action  upon  its 
source;  primary  conditions  of  growth,  kinds  of  doing — illustra- 
tions— with  liquid  measure — with  curved  lines — form,  with  clay 
— form,  with  paper — geography;  re-statement  of  principle  and 
condition  of  education. 


CHAPTER  IV.  Page  90. 

EXERCISE-GROUND  IN  EDUCATION. 

A  frequent  error;  the  scope  of  education;  the  two  kinds  of 
education;  the  institutions  that  confer  education;  the  education 
of  the  Family;  the  efi'ect  upon  the  other  institutions  if  this  edu- 
cation is  not  well  given;  the  function  of  the  School;  the  education 
of  the  Church;  the  education  of  Business;  the  education  of  the 
State;  the  comparative  value  of  the  education  of  each;  each 
institution  an  organism;  the  Social  System  an  organism;  the  pur- 
pose of  the  Social  System. 


CHAPTER  V.  Page  96. 

THE  KINDERGARTEN. 

The  genesis  of  the  kindergarten;  the  five  stages  of  its  growth, 
general  nature  and  appliances— room,  furniture,  teacher,  appa- 
ratus; gifts  and  occupations — their  order  of  development;  the 
first  gift — its  material,  games  and  exercises — relation  to  family 
and  to  school;  the  second  gift — its  material,  games  and  exercises 
— relation  to  first  gift,  to  family  and  to  school;  the  third  gift — 
its  material,  games  and  exercises — relation  to  first  and  to  second 


SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS.  11 

gifts,  to  family  and  to  school;  the  fourth  gift — its  material,  games 
and  exercises — relation  to  the  other  gifts,  to  the  family  and  to 
the  school;  the  Jifth  gift — its  material,  games  and  exercises — 
relation  to  the  other  gifts,  to  the  family  and  to  the  school;  the 
sixth  gift — its  material,  games  and  exercises — relation  to  the 
other  gifts,  to  the  family  and  to  the  school;  table  showing  the 
relation  between  the  kindergarten  and  higher  education. 


CHAPTER  VI.  Page  124. 

THE  SCHOOL. 

Oround  of  the  school;  Idea  of  the  school;  Form  of  the  school 
—the  common,  university  and  special  schools — the  general  offi- 
cers—the special  oflBcers;  State  Superintendent — general  duties; 
State  Board  of  Education — general  duties;  County  Superinten- 
dent— general  duties*;  Township  Trustee — general  duties;  Pur- 
pose of  school — ethical  conduct — mechanical  conduct — scholar- 
ship.   

CHAPTER  VII.  Page  132. 

CONDUCT. 

Conduct  in  relation  to  the  Infinite — opening  exercises — view- 
ed as  intellectual  and  as  moral — design — basis — parts — method 
— examples  of  method;  Narration — steps,  illustration — introduc- 
tion, separation,  conclusion;  Emblems — nature,  steps,  intro- 
duction, natural  image,  spiritual  truth,  conclusion;  Parables — 
nature,  steps,  illustration — introduction,  the  story,  interpreta- 
tion, conclusion;  opening  exercises  as  presented  in  the  Training 
Schools — first  and  second  grades,  third  and  fourth  grades,  fifth 
and  sixth  grades;  conduct  in  relation  to  self;  conduct  in  rela- 
tion to  others — in  the  family,  in  the  business  world,  in  the 
state,  in  the  school;  the  school  as  a  field  for  the  cultivation  of 
behavior — order — punctuality,  regularity,  perseverance,  earn- 
estness, justice,  truthfulness,  industry,  kindness. 


12  SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   VIII.  Page  178. 

SCHOLARSHIP.— ME  THOD. 


SECTION    ONE. 

METHOD  IN  READING. 

PREPARATORY    STAGE. 

The  known  ;  the  advance  ;  the  various  methods. 

Alphabetic  Method. — Subject-matter,  its  work,  principles, 
favorable  points,  objections,  how  to  test  it. 

Phonic  Method.— Subject-matter,  its  work,  principles,  favor- 
able points,  objections,  how  to  test  it. 

Phonetic  Method. — Subject-matter,  its  work,  principles, 
favorable  points,  objections,  how  to  test  it. 

The  Word  Method. — Subject-matter,  its  work,  principles, 
favorable  points,  objections,  how  to  test  it. 

The  Idea- Word  Method. — Subject-matter,  its  work,  princi- 
ples, favorable  points,  how  to  test  it;  power  to  master  new 
words — how  given  ;  suggestions— work  of  first  two  months ; 
analysis  into  sounds  and  letters;  diacritical  marks — purpose, 
time ;  print  and  script— reasons  for  and  against  the  use  of  each 
at  first;  n-anner  of  teaching  "a"  and  "the";  the  words  for  first 
work — how  to  select  them. 

The  Sentence  Method. — General  nature — the  reading  of 
those  taught  out  of  school;  of  those  taught  in  school;  infer- 
ences ;  definition  of  reading ;  the  object  in  teaching  reading ; 
principles  of  the  sentence  method ;  first  step  of  the  sentence 
method ;  second  step  of  the  sentence  method ;  third  step  of  the 
sentence  method. 

Why  any  one  of  these  alone  is  not  a  method;  the  central 
thought  of  each;  the  great  point  in  learning  to  read  ;  associa- 
tion the  essential  act ;  the  principles  of  association ;  the  de- 
velopment of  the  mind ;  the  devices  to  be  employed  in  read- 
ing ;  the  prevalent  defect  in  teaching  children  to  read. 


SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS.  13 

PRIMARY  STAGE. 

General  nature  ;  usual  mode  of  procedure ;  a  preferable  mode 
— thought,  form,  oral  reading ;  supplementary  work  ;  list  of 
books  to  read. 

ADVANCED  STAGE. 

Definition  ;  kinds ;  thought  analysis— the  idpa  in  it,  illustra- 
tions of  what  is  meant  by  thought  analysis  in  reading ;  deriva- 
tion— general  suggestions,  incidental  derivation — illustration, 
systematic  derivation— roots  of  words,  prefixes,  suffixes,  deriva- 
tives ;  figurative  language— definition,  examples,  suggestions 
as  to  how  to  deal  with  figurative  language. 


SECTION  TWO.  Page  270. 

METHOD  IN  WRITING. 

Design;  mechanical  conditions,  furniture,  position  of  body, 
materials:  basis;— nature,  order  of  procedure,  stages. 


SECTION  THREE.  Pftg©  278. 

MBTHOD  IN  SPELLING. 

Design;  principles;  stages— copy,  dictation,  application,  analy- 
sis; syllabication;  grouping;  rules. 


SECTION  POUR.  •     Page  285. 

METHOD  IN  NUMBER. 

Definition  of  number;  what  can  be  done  with  a  number;  what 
can  be  known  of  a  number — illustration;  purpose;  the  five  main 
defects  in  teaching  number;  stages  in  number  work;  prin- 
ciples; numerical  ideation;  notation — relation  of  numeration 
and  notation;  outline  of  work  of  first  four  years;  details  of  the 
work  of  the  first  year — work  of  first  three  months  illustrated; 
work  of  last  seven  months  of  the  first  year  illustrated;  details 
of  the  work  of  the  second,  third  and  fourth  years;  the  nature 
of  the  fundamental  processes. 


14  SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS. 

SECTION  FIVE.  Page  331. 

METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY. 

Definition;  system;  principles;  mental  faculties  involved; 
purposes ;  the  knowledge  that  the  children  possess  when  enter- 
ing school ;  its  classification ;  through  what  sources  obtained  ; 
the  attitude  of  their  minds  toward  these  ideas ;  the  consequent 
first  work  in  geography;  into  what  do  these  ideas  unfold;  the 
more  common  defects  in  presenting  the  subject;  First  Year's 
Work,  nature  of;  Second  Year's  Work,  nature  of;  suitable  books 
for  collateral  reading ;  Third  Year's  Work — aim,  nature  of  work, 
the  idea  upon  which  the  work  is  based,  illustration  of  the  nature 
of  the  work,  means  to  be  employed,  the  geographical  elements; 
order  of  presenting  the  geographical  elements,  collateral  general 
lessons,  pictorial  illustration,  how  select  pictures,  how  classify 
them,  books  for  collateral  reading  and  for  pictures ;  Fourth  Year's 
Work — aim;  steps — form  of  earth,  latitude  and  longitude,  globe 
and  map,  the  air,  the  hemispheres,  relation  of  earth  to  sun, 
winds,  oceanic  movements,  vapor  in  the  air,  the  crumbling  of 
the  earth's  surface,  glaciers,  volcanoes  and  hot  springs ;  the  aim 
of  the  work  upon  these  points;  suggestive  questions;  the  structure 
of  the  continents;  order  of  the  study  of  the  continents;  list  of 
books  for  collateral  reading;  Fifth  Year's  Work — aim;  outline  of 
work;  means  of  original  investigation;  means  of  review;  diagram 
of  location  of  general  vegetable  productions;  diagram  of  location 
of  food  plants;  diagram  of  location  of  animals;  diagram  for  con- 
sideration of  religions;  diagram  for  consideration  of  govern- 
ments; books  for  teachers;  books  for  pupils;  Sixth  Year's  Work — 
the  two  phases  of  geography— poZi^teaZ  and  industrial;  the  subor- 
dinate place  of  political  geography;  order  of  the  study  of  the 
continents  in  political  geography;  the  scope  of  the  study;  as- 
pect; character  of  the  people;  characteristics  of  instruction; 
map  construction;  use  of  text;  historical  geography;  incidental 
geography;  industrial  geography  of  the  U.  S.;  the  specific  lines 
of  investigation;  the  preliminary  steps;  the  order  and  outline  of 
work;  characteristics  of  instruction;  books  for  collateral  read- 
ing. 


SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS.  15 

SECTION  SIX.  Page  375. 

METHOD  IN  U.  8.  HISTOBY. 

What  history  is  ;  its  aim  ;  the  system  of  history  ;  the  mental 
powers  involved  ;  biography ;  the  study  of  homes — in  the  fourth 
year,  the  Aborigines  in  their  homes;  in  the  fifth  year,  the  Spanish 
and  French  in  their  homes ;  in  the  sixth  year,  the  Dutch  and 
English  in  their  homes ;  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventh  year,  the 
Colonists  in  their  new  homes ;  list  of  books  for  reference  ;  the  life 
of  the  nation — enumeration  of  principles ;  method  ;  epochs ;  list 
of  books  for  reference;  form  of  government ;  outline  of  course  of 
study  on  form  of  government ;  list  of  books  on  form  of  govern- 
ment.   

SECTION  SEVEN.  Page  397. 

V    METHOD  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Outline  of  first  three  years'  work;  explanation  of  the  nature 
of  the  work;  illustration  of  work  taken  in  connection  with  read- 
ing; outline  of  the  work  for  the  fourth,  fifth,  sixth  and  seventh 
years;  explanation  of  the  work  for  these  years;  series  of  exer- 
cises; illustration  of  each  point  in  the  work  of  the  fourth,  fifth, 
sixth  and  seventh  years ;  outline  of  the  eighth  year's  work ; 
purpose;  central  thought;  scope;  general  method;  order  of  in- 
struction.   

CHAPTER  IX.  Page  426. 

THE  RECITATION. 

The  school;  the  common  school;  instruments  of  the  common 
school— physical  surroundings;  thejlaws  of  theIschool;4branches 
of  study,  (a),  their  organic  relation,  (b),^  kinds  of  exercise- 
grounds,  (c),  methods  appropriate;  the  teacher — his  unconscious 
influence,  what  it  is,  the  aim  of  education  it  assumes;  its  prin- 
ciples, the  avenues  by  which  it  reaches  the  child,  its  relation 
to  the  teacher's  previous  discipline,  why  it  is  the  most  potent 
factor;  the  conscious  influence  of  the  teacher — how  it  manifests 


16  SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS. 

itself,  (a)  in  the  general  work,  (b)  in  the  recitation;  preparation 
of  the  teacher  preparatory  to  school  work  and  to  the  recitation 
— a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  education,  of  the  history  of 
the  growth  of  educational  ideas,  and  of  the  principles  of  select- 
ing materials  and  of  planning  lessons;  illustration  of  written 
plan — subject,  design,  condition  of  training,  exercise-ground, 
the  basis,  steps,  method;  agencies  of  the  recitation — stimuli, 
interest  and  attention,  their  nature,  attention  in  the  recitation, 
interest  in  the  subjects,  interest  in  general  mental  growth; 
questioning — nature,  purpose,  kinds,  illustrations  from  Socra- 
tes, structure  of  questions,  sequence  in  questioning;  explanation 
— explanation  proper,  illustration — objective  illustration,  verbal 
illustration,  pictorial  illustration;  repetition;  the  main  princi- 
ples of  the  recitation. 


<^ 


The  Theory  of  the  School. 


CHAPTER  L 


THE  SUBJECT  OF  EDUCATION. 


INFERENCES. 

Ariadne  furnished  him  with  a  sword,  with  which  to  encounter  the 
Minotaur,  and  with  a  clew  of  thread  by  which  he  might  find  his  way  out 
of  the  labyrinth.— BULFINCH'8  Ag^e  of  FabU. 


j^HE  root  thought  of  a  correct  theory  of  the  school 
'^^i  is  that  mind,  endowed  with  self-activity  and  the 
capacity  for  self-direction  is  the  real  subject  of  educa- 
tion. The  mind  is  a  spiritual  organism,  possessing 
three  distinct  capacities — the  capacities  of  knowing,  of 
feeling,  and  of  willing.  This  organism,  with  fts  several 
functions,  is  the  subject  of  the  educational  process. 

1.  Consideration  and  definition  of  organism. 

2.  Illustration  of  self-activity,  self-direction  and  organism. 

That  which  is  distinctively  human  in  man  is  the  emo- 
tional and  volitional  nature.    This  is  the  true  life  of  a 

3 


18  THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

human  being.  This  truer  or  higher  Hfe,  as  distinguished 
from  the  bodily  and  the  intellectual,  is  provided  with 
two  instruments  or  servants — the  intellect  and  the  body. 
More  specifically,  then,  mind  as  emotion  and  will,  is 
the  subject  of  education  in  the  higher  sense,  and  body 
and  intellect  in  the  lower  or  instrumental  sense. 

1.  Distinguish  and  give  examples  of  acts  of  intellect,  sensi- 
bility and  will. 

2.  Show  the  organic  relation  of  such  acts. 

Education  confers  upon  the  mind  no  absolutely  new 
capacities.  All  the  powers  that  are  found  in  the  mind 
at  maturity  existed,  then,  in  embryo  in  the  mind  at 
birth.  Before  the  mind  can  apply  itself  successfully  to 
the  varied  problems  of  active  life  it  requires,  like  the 
body,  a  period  of  preparation.  But  a  period  of  prepara- 
tion is,  impliedly,  a  time  of  development.  It  may  be 
stated,  then,  that  the  subject  of  education  is  a  spiritual 
being,  the  essential  principle  of  which  is  growth.  Growth 
thus  becomes  the  fundamental  principle  of  education, 
and  the  two  marked  stages  of  mind  are : 

1.  Development  or  training.     (Through  use). 

2,  Use.  (Resulting  in  additional  development). 
That  mind,  with  these  two  distinct  stages  is  the  sub- 
ject of  education,  is  the  most  significant  truth  that  the 
teacher  will  encounter.  If  he  absorbs  this  thought  so 
as  to  make  it  a  part  of  his  very  being,  he  is  possessed  at 
once  of  the  sword  of  Ariadne. 

Several  things  are  manifest,  obviously,  (from  all  the 
foregoing) : 

1.  That  knowledge,  i.e.,  the  different  branches  of 
study,  is  not  the  subject  of  education. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  19 

2.  That  a  course  of  study  by  pages  is  inconsistent 
with  the  true  theor}^  of  education. 

3.  That  real  education  is  self-education ;  the  child 
being  his  own  educator  under  the  guidance  of  the 
teacher,  who  is  merely  a  formal  educator  having  both  a 
negative  and  a  positive  function. 

The  negative  function  consists  ih  removing  impedi- 
ments, so  as  to  allow  free  scope  to  the  child's  self-devel- 
opment. The  positive  function  is  to  stimulate  the 
child  to  the  exercise  of  his  powers,  to  furnish  materials 
and  occasions  for  their  exercise,  and  to  maintain  and 
train  the  action  of  the  mental  powers. 

4.  That  the  shbject-matter  or  instrument  of  educa- 
tion is  thought,  since  to  think  is  the  function  of  the 
mind. 

5.  That  the  essence  of  education  lies  in  determin- 
ing the  best  method  of  furnishing  the  faculties  of  the 
mind  with  material  for  exercise,  of  awakening  and  exer- 
cising the  dormant  faculties,  of  giving  them  strength 
and  of  training  them  into  higher  life. 

6.  That  education  is  a  life-long  process,  the  exercise- 
ground  of  mind  being  the  institutions  known  as  the 
family,  school,  church,  business  society,  and  state. 

7.  That  the  family  and  the  school  form  the  exer- 
cise-ground of  mind  during  its  period  of  development 
and  the  other  institutions  during  the  period  of  use. 

While  all  teachers  who  have  studied  mind  understand 
it  to  be  an  organism,  and  know  and  base  their  work 
upon  the  thought  that  the  intellect  is  the  avenue  to  the 
sensibilities,  that  other  truth,  that  the  heart  is  also  the 
avenue  to  the  intellect  is  either  not  known,  or  but  little 


20  THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

acted  upon  if  known.  To  make  this  essential  thought, 
that  the  heart  is  the  real  avenue  to  the  intellect^  a  vital  part 
of  one's  teaching  character,  is  the  only  guarantee  of 
success  in  dealing  with  mind,  as  otherwise  the  intellect 
may  remain  closed  to  all  efforts  to  address  it. 

If  mind  as  an  organism  is  the  subject  of  education , 
this  inter-relation  of  sensibilities  and  intellect  must  be 
understood  and  acted  upon. 

Every  gate  is  closed  to  hate, 
But  open  wide  to  love. 

— Whittiee. 

A  loving  heart  is  the  beginning  of  all  knowledge.    This  it  is  that  opens  the 
whole  mind,  and  quickens  every  faculty  of  the  intellect  to  do  its  fit  work. 

— Carlyle. 

But  to  present  mind  as  the  subject  of  education  is  not 
sufficiently  definite,  since  mind  may  be  viewed  in  sev- 
eral ways : 

1.  Mind  may  be  understood  as  the  "universal  sub- 
strate of  all  things." 

2.  Mind  in  general,  as  presented  in  works  on  men- 
tal science. 

3.  Mind  as  embodied  in  the  teacher. 

4.  The  minds  of  the  pupils. 

The  question  becomes  pertinent,  In  which  of  these 
views  is  mind  the  subject  of  education  ? 

No  doubt  the  general  answer  would  be,  mind  in  neither 
of  the  first  three  senses  is  the  subject,  although  that 
answer  would  by  no  means  satisfy  all,  that  systems  of 
schools,  studies,  methods,  and  means,  have  not  frequent- 
ly been  adapted  to  mind  in  general,  or  to  the  teacher's 
own,  instead  of  to  the  pupils'  minds.  Is  it  to  be  accept- 
ed, however,  that  the  minds  of  the  pupils  form  the  sub- 


THE  THEORY   OP  THE  SCHOOL.  21 

ject  of  the  educational  process  ?  If  so,  in  what  sense  ? 
"The  minds  of  the  pupils"  is  a  very  comprehensive 
term.     In  a  school  of  thirty  pupils  what  does  it  mean  ? 

It  means  in  one  case  a  young  John  Stu:art  Mill,  in 
mind. 

It  means  in  another  case  a  mind  from  the  depths,  the 
very  opposite  of  the  perfection  of  child-nature  found  in 
the  first. 

It  means  in  a  third  case  the  average  child-mind  from 
the  average  home. 

Again,  it  means  a  boy  who  has  had  generations  of 
vice  and  ignorance  behind  him. 

In  another  instance  it  means  some  child  from  a  home 
of  idleness  and  frivolity. 

It  means,  perhaps,  some  child  from  the  environment 
of  stupidity  and  stunted  life. 

It  may  mean  a  child  with  years  of  wrong  methods 
behind  him. 

In  that  room,  beside  the  quick,  intelligent  child  may 
sit  a  dull,  contented  nature,  satisfied  with  dullness, 
neither  wanting  to  know  nor  ashamed  of  not  knowing. 
Each  mind  is  different  from  the  others.  Each  has  its 
idiocracy,  its  special  traits.  The  degrees  of  capacity 
are  different.  The  degrees  of  apathy  are  different.  The 
causes  of  apathy  are  different.  All  of  these  are  includ- 
ed in  "  the  minds  of  the  pupils." 

What,  then,  is  the  subject  in  teaching? 
«  The  best  minds  of  the  pupils  ?      Then  the  average 
and  the  poorest  are  wronged. 

The  average  minds  of  the  school?  Then  the  best 
and  the  worst  are  deprived  of  their  due. 


22  THE  THEORY  OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

The  poorest  minds  that  are  found  in  the  room?  This 
would  be  manifest  injustice  to  the  others. 

Is  not  the  fundamental  truth  this — that  each  particu- 
lar mind  with  its  special  traits  and  idiosyncracies  is 
the  true  subject  of  the  educating  process — the  subject 
to  which  teacher,  methods,  and  means,  are  to  be 
adapted  ? 

The  individual  mind,  then,  with  its  two  stages  of 
development  and  use,  is  the  subject  of  education  in  its 
full  sense. 

The  teacher  who  is  thoroughly  imbued  with  this 
thought  is  possessed  of  both  the  sword  and  the  thread 
of  Ariadne. 

If  the  individual  minds  are  the  subject,  several  infer- 
ences present  themselves : 

1.  That  the  teacher  must  study  mind. 

2.  That  the  sources  of  the  study  of  mind  are  three : 

a.  From  books,  Porter,  Hopkins,  Hickok,  Car- 
penter, etc.,  giving  a  knowledge  of  mind  in  general — the 
true  basis  for  a  study  of  the  individual  minds. 

b.  The  acts  and  phenomena  of  the  teacher's  own 
mind,  to  which  he  always  has  immediate  access. 

c.  The  activity  of  the  pupils'  minds,  to  which  he 
always  has  mediate  access  through  their  outward  acts 
and  words. 

The  two  cardinal  truths  which  need,  more  than  any 
others,  to  be  impressed  upon  the  mind  of  each  teacher 
are,  first,  that  each  individual  mind  under  his  charge  is 
the  true  subject  of  his  educational  efforts ;  second,  that 
he  cannot  obtain  the  best  results  in  teaching,  indeed, 
that  he  cannot  be  a  real  teacher,  unless  he  understands 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  23 

the  mind  with  which  he  must  deal.  What  kind  of  a 
blacksmith  is  he  who  does  not  understand  iron?  What 
kind  of  a  foreman  in  a  wool  factory  is  a  person  who 
cannot  judge  of  wool?  What  kind  of  a  teacher  is  that 
one  who  cannot  judge  of  mind  and  mind  action  ? 

'  It  is  true  that  there  are  teachers  endowed  with  the 
power  of  sympathizing  so  earnestly  with  children  that 
in  their  case  this  sympathy  does  the  work  of  knowledge, 
or  rather  it  is  knowledge  unconsciously  exercising  the 
power  proverbially  attributed  to  it.  The  intense  interest 
they  feel  in  their  work  almost  instinctively  leads  them 
to  adopt  the  right  way  of  doing  it.  They  are  artists  with- 
out knowing  that  they  are  artists.  They  are  acting  upon 
the  principle  that  the  feelings  are  the  avenue  to  the  intel- 
lect, that  interest  is  the  basis  of  attention,  and  attention 
thebasis  of  intellectual  power,  without  being  conscious  of 
it.  But  considering  the  large  number  of  teachers,  such 
examples  are  rare,  and  as  a  general  proposition  it  will 
be  found  to  be  true  that  the  only  truly  efficient  director 
of  moral  and  intellectual  action  is  the  one  who  under- 
stands the  true  nature  of  the  mind  he  is  guiding.  It 
is  this  knowledge  that  makes  teaching  a  psychological 
art.  One  who  does  not  possess  it  is  attempting  to  guide 
an  organism  of  exquisite  capabilities  which  he  does  not 
comprehend.  The  fact  that  there  is  so  large  a  number 
of  persons  in  positions  as  school  trustees  and  as  teachers 
without  understanding  even  the  most  fundamental  facts 
concerning  the  minds  with  which  their  work  has  to  do, 
explains  the  courses  of  study  by  pages,  the  telling, 
cramming,  the  endless  explaining,  the  unnecessary  as- 
sisting, the  rote-learning,  the  frequent  examinations  that 


24  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

are  mere  tests  of  memory,  and  not  of  power,  the  fierce 
struggle  for  per  cents  by  teachers  for  their  rooms  and  by 
pupils  for  themselves,  and  all  that  kind  of  work  which 
regards  mere  knowledge  to  be  the  subject  of  education, 
and  which  enfeebles  and  deadens  the  native  powers  of 
the  child.  True  teaching  has  but  little  in  common  with 
that  system  of  telling  and  cramming  which  so  generally 
usurps  its  name,  and  which  results  not  merely  in  com- 
paratively empty  minds,  but  in  closed  minds,  minds 
indifferent  and  stolid  as  to  education  and  its  value. 
Unteachable  minds  is  the  usual  result  of  the  work  of 
those  who  do  not  understand  the  subject  of  their 
work.'* 

3.  If  each  individual  mind  is  the  teacher's  subject, 
the  third  inference  is  obvious — that  the  number  of  pu- 
pils under  the  charge  of  one  teacher  should  be  small 
enough  for  the  teacher  to  become  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  the  capacities  and  defects  of  each  mind,  while  it 
should  not  be  so  small  as  to  deprive  the  pupils  of  the 
advantage  which  comes  from  the  contact  of  mind  with 
various  different  minds. 

It  may,  perhaps,  be  safely  held  that  the  suitable  num- 
ber of  pupils  for  a  teacher  vibrates  between  twenty 
and  thirty,  owing  to  the  teacher's  penetration  in  com- 
prehending character  and  its  needs.  It  is  a  serious,  not 
to  say  irreparable  injury  to  a  community,  when  a  school 
board,  iinder  the  idea  that  it  is  a  stroke  of  economy  and 
a  gain  to  the  people,  place  one  hundred  children  in 
charge  of  two  teachers  at  an  annual  expense  to  the  tax- 
payers of  one  thousand  dollars,  instead  of  employing  to 

*  JOSEPH  PAYNE, 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  25 

educate  them,  four  teachers,  with  twenty-five  to  a  room, 
at  an  annual  expense  of  two  thousand  dollars. 

If  it  is  true,  as  is  held,  that  numbers  higher  than 
about  thirty  shut  off  attention  to  individual  minds,  then 
a  little  reflection  makes  it  obvious  that  the  second  pro- 
cedure would  be  far  more  economical  to  the  community. 

In  the  first  place,  the  attempt  of  the  teacher  to  deal 
with  fifty  children  makes  it  impossible  to  give  that 
attention  to  the  peculiar  nature  and  needs  of  each  child 
that  the  parent  has  a  right  to  demand  when  he  hands 
him  over  to  the  care  of  the  schools  and  pays  for  that 
care.  The  problem  is  to  reach  and  teach  the  mind  of 
each  child.  Anything  other  than  this  would  be  mani- 
fest injustice  to  some  families  of  those  represented  by 
the  fifty  children.  With  fifty  children  one  tea:cher  can- 
not understand  the  individual  minds  and  needs  well 
enough  to  teach  to  each  mind  each  branch  of  study 
well  and  neglect  no  one  of  them ;  and  this  is  not  taking 
into  account  the  subject  of  discipline  and  moral  culture, 
which  is  very  much  complicated  by  numbers.  The 
teacher  has  neither  the  knowledge  of  the  minds  nor  the 
time  to  adapt  herself  and  her  work  to  each  mind,  and 
she  is,  therefore,  compelled  to  address  the  minds  as  a 
mass,  to  pour  out  knowledge  before  them  and  let  those 
who  can,  adapt  themselves  to  it,  and  the  others  remain 
without  even  this  kind  of  help.  The  result  is  an 
attempt  to  inform  to  a  given  extent,  each  month,  and 
not  to  educate,  because  to  educate  requires  that  each 
mind  shall  be  understood.  In  this  way  but  little  inter- 
est is  aroused  in  the  pupils,  and  the  process  of  cram- 
ming is  received  at  first  with  protest,  then  with  indiffer- 


26  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

ence,  and  at  last  the  hundred  pupils  of  the  two  teachers 
pass  out  of  school,  none  of  them  educated  in  the  sense 
that  education  is  development ;  some  few,  those  who 
needed  it  least,  well  instructed  perhaps ;  others  but 
fairly  instructed ;  and  still  others,  perhaps  fifty  out  of 
the  hundred,  and  they  the  ones  who  needed  training 
most,  with  little  or  nothing  in  the  way  of  intellectual 
and  moral  power,  and  worse  than  this,  indifferent  to 
education  and  its  value,  the  effect  of  the  schools  having 
been  to  make  them  contented  in  their  ignorance  and 
lack  of  power. 

The  question  naturally  arises,  In  which  case  has  th© 
school  board  done  most  good  to  the  community?  Which 
course  would  be  true  economy?  Would  the  commu- 
nity have  been  richer  in  having  expended  only  one 
thousand  dollars,  and  in  having  received  the  children 
back  into  the  active  walks  of  life  as  above  described^ 
which  is  no  untrue  picture,  or  in  having  spent  two- 
thousand  dollars,  thus  insuring  a  sufficient  number  of 
teachers  to  give  attention  to  the  individual  needs  of  the 
children,  and  receiving  them  at  last  from  the  schools 
with  their  moral  and  intellectual  powers  well  trained^ 
with  minds  active,  skilful  and  capable ;  with  new  long- 
ings, and  new  capacities  for  satisfying  those  longings; 
with  minds  as  receptive  and  skilled  as  each  individual 
case  is  capable  of  being  made?  Which  is  worth  more  to 
a  neighborhood,  one  thousand  dollars  or  one  hundred 
children  morally  and  intellectually  strong  ? 

If  individual  minds  are  the  subject  of  education,  is  it 
not  a  proper  inference  that  school  boards  should  see  to 
it  that  the  number  in  charge  of  each  teacher  is  small 


THE    THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  27 

enough  to  enable  the  teacher  to  read  each  mind  and 
then  adapt  herself  and  her  work  to  each  mind  ? 

4.  If  it  be  admitted  that  the  individual  mind  is  the 
subject  of  the  teacher's  work,  then  a  fourth  inference  is 
that  the  teacher  should  remain  long  enough  with  the 
pupils  to  be  able  to  see  into  their  peculiarities  of  dispo- 
sition and  environment.  This  can  not  be  well  accom- 
plished in  six  months,  nor  in  one  year,  and  the  thought 
that  arises  is  that  the  teachers  of  the  country  schools 
should  not  be  changed  so  often,  and  that  the  teachers  in 
the  city  schools  should  be  promoted  with  their  classes. 
Viewing  this  principle  alone — that  time  gives  the  teacher 
the  opportunity  to  know  the  minds  of  the  pupils — 
the  thought  would  be  that  the  pupil  should  have  but 
one  teacher  during  school  life.  But  another  principle — 
that  the  pupil's  mind  gains  greater  breadth  and  power 
by  coming  into  contact  with  different  minds — seems  to 
require  variety  in  teachers.  With  the  two  principles  in 
consideration  it  may  be  held  that  there  should  be  two 
or  three  changes  of  teachers  during  the  school  course. 
It  is  obvious,  of  course,  that  if  the  teacher  is  inefficient, 
thesponer  a  change  is  made  the  better;  on  the  supposi- 
tion, however,  that  the  school  boards  and  superintend- 
ents do  not  complicate  the  selection  of  teachers  by 
geographical,  family,  and  other  arbitrary  considerations, 
but  make  moral  and  intellectual  fitness  the  sole  test — a 
supposition  which  in  a  work  on  theory  may  be  per- 
mitted— a  greater  length  of  time  with  a  given  class  than 
is  now  allowed  would  be  a  gain,  inasmuch  as  it  would 
necessarily  result  in  the  teacher's  gaining  a  more  inti- 


28  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

mate  acquaintance  with  the  individual  minds  of  the 
pupils. 

5.  It  is  also  held  by  some,  and  by  many  not,  that 
if  individual  mind  with  its  peculiarities  is  the  subject, 
the  regular  studies  of  the  course  should  not  be  so  many 
as  to  engross  all  the  time  and  strength  of  the.  pupils ; 
enough  extra  studies  being  provided  to  satisfy  their 
various  natures  and  peculiarities.  This  requirement  is 
met,  to  a  certain  degree  by  the  general  lessons,  readings, 
and  conversations  of  the  lower  grades,  and  by  the  elective 
studies  in  the  higher  schools.  (Reasons  for  and  against 
elective  studies.) 

Mind  being  the  real  subject  in  education,  the  impor- 
tance of  its  study,  as  before  suggested,  at  once  becomes 
manifest.  The  study  of  mind  in  general,  as  presented 
in  Porter,  Hickok,  Carpenter,  and  others,  will  give  the 
teacher  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  various  facul- 
ties, their  order  of  development  and  inter-dependence, 
the  laws  of  their  action,  their  processes  and  products — . 
knowledge  of  great  advantage  to  the  educator.  But 
many  object,  and  truly,  that  they  have  neither  time  nor 
opportunity  for  such  study.  "  It  is  essential,  neverthe- 
less, to  the  fully  equipped  teacher. 

Mind  and  its  action  are,  however,  accessible  to  these. 
As  was  before  observed,  each  teacher  has  direct  access 
to  the  phenomena  of  his  own  mind  and  indirect  access 
to  the  minds  of  his  pupils  through  their  actions  and 
words.  Systematic,  patient  study  in  these  two  lines  will 
make  plain  many  things  concerning  the  mental  faculties 
and  their  growth. 


THE    THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  29 

The  intelligent  observer  will  see  among  other  things 
that  the  imagination  and  the  spontaneous  memory  are 
active  in  the  early  years,  and  that  the  power  to  learn  in 
an  abstract  way  through  the  logical  faculty  is  but  feeble. 
It  will  appear  that  the  power  of  continuous  attention  i« 
not  possessed,  should  not  be  expected,  needs  to  be 
developed  ;  that  the  power  to  observe^  usually  supposed 
to  be  acute  in  the  child  when  he  enters  school,  is  by  the 
third  or  fourth  year  of  school,  practically  dormant.  A 
brief  notice  of  what  these  mental  facts  imply  is  due. 
Neglect  in  observing  mind  action  has  led  to  neglect  in 
the  cultivation  of  the  imagination.  It  is,  however,  a 
faculty  worthy  of  cultivation,  and  necessary  alike  to  the 
intellectual,  and  to  the  moral  education.  This,  while 
fully  recognized  in  the  kindergarten,  has  not  been,  in 
general,  in  the  schools.  Its  central  principle— the 
imagination  creates  no  new  material — is  a  confirmation, 
in  one  sense,  of  Jacotot's  paradox  "Tout  est  dans  tout" 
(All  is  in  all.)  This  faculty  gives  to  the  child  the  un- 
known in  or  from  the  known.  'It  furnishes  knowledge 
otherwise  unattainable ;  it  gives  life,  interest,  and  au- 
thority to  the  action  of  the  understanding  by  the  rich 
illustration  which  it  suggests  ;  and  by  its  power  of  set- 
ting before  the  child  scenes  of  other  lands  and  distant 
times,  past  or  future,  it  provides  nourishment  for  the^ 
moral  nature.  It  is,  moreover,  a  constant  source  of  hap- 
piness through  the  pleasant  images  with  which  it  fills 
the  mind.  Observation  is  limited  to  very  narrow  boun- 
daries of  space  and  time ;  to  whatever  extent  the  child 
passes  th'ese  it  must  be  on  the  wings  of  the  imagination. 
Accordingly,  as  already  implied,  descriptions  of  natural 


so  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

scenery,  and  scenes  from  life,  real  or  ideal,  are  the  field 
in  which  this  mode  of  intelligence  is  to  be  exercised, 
and  both  are  very  rich  in  materials.  It  is  clear  at  once 
that  the  instruments  available  for  the  cultivation  of  this 
faculty  are  two — language  and  pictorial  illustration.^'^ 
All  these  facts  are  obvious  to  the  teacher  who  watches 
his  own  mind  and  the  minds  of  children,  and  they  sug- 
gest a  problem,  and  indicate  a  line  of  work  for  the  teach- 
er's own  improvement.  The  problem  is.  What  is  the 
method  of  using  language,  and  pictorial  illustration  in 
the  cultivation  of  the  imagination?  The  line  of  work  is 
— the  mastery  of  description  and  narration  as  language 
forms  for  expressing  and  conveying  thought. 

The  spontaneous  memory^  the  form  to  be  observed  in 
childhood,  like  a  sponge,  absorbs  everything  that  comes 
in  contact  with  it.  Unlike  the  power  afterwards  acquired 
of  fixing  in  mind  by  conscious  efibrt,  whatever  is 
judged  worthy  of  being  retained,  it  is  a  natural  power 
by  which  the  child  receives  and  stores  up,  with  little  or 
no  efiort,  whatever  comes  before  the  mind,  whether  it 
is  worthy  to  be  held  or  not.  The  fact  that  the  child 
possesses  this  power  in  a  high  degree  is  of  great  signifi- 
cance in  early  education.  It  shows  that  the  early  years 
are  pre-eminently  years  for  gathering  materials  for 
thought  and  reflecting  in  the  presence  of  them,  because 
•such  reflection  reacts  upon  the  memory  and  tends  to 
make  it  rational ;  and  it  furnishes  also  the  ground  for 
judicious  selection  and  an  organized  series  of  impres- 
sions. It  has  been  said,  however,  by  Lord  Lytton,  that 
io  attempt  to  systematize  the  child's  impressions,  at  least 

*CURRIB 


THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  31 

in  his  most  tender  years,  is  to  proceed  as  the  man  who 
thought  that  his  bees  would  produce  more  honey,  if 
instead  of  wandering  from  flower  to  flower,  they  were 
shut  up  in  the  hive  and  furnished  with  flowers. 

The  bees,  however,  are  not  endowed  with  an  unguid- 
ed  power  of  selection  which  causes  them  to  take  honey 
from  every  flower,  be  it  poisonous  or  otherwise,  as  the 
spontaneous  memory  of  the  children  drinks  in  alike  the 
good  and  bad,  to  have  a  marked  influence  on  character 
not  yet  formed.  Moreover,  while  the  bees  are  possessed 
of  a  natural  and  fully  developed  power  of  selection,  and 
the  man  who  was  to  furnish  them  with  flowers  had  no 
power  of  selection  in  that  respect,  in  the  case  of  chil- 
dren their  power  of  selection  and  arrangement  is  un- 
developed, but  that  of  their  educator  is  supposed  to  be 
developed  and  matured. 

That  the  child  possesses  the  power  of  spontaneous 
memory,  drinking  in  and  retaining  all  kinds  of  impre's- 
sions  seems  to  establish  three  thoughts  in  regard  to  early 
education : 

First,  that  there  should  be  a  systematic  selection  and 
organization  of  the  impressions  that  he  is  to  receive. 
This  is  admirably  accomplished   in  the   kindergarten. 

Second,  that  the  first  work  in  the  primary  schools 
should  be  to  supplement  the  work  already  done  in  the 
kindergarten,  or  to  partially  fill  its  place  if  the  child  has 
not  been  under  its  influence,  'by  opening  to  him  a& 
materials  for  thought,  in  connection  with  all  necessary 
work,  all  that  which  will  inspirit  and  interest ;  all  that 
which  is  wonderful,  weird,  picturesque,  beautiful,  and 
noble,  in  connection  with  humanity,  nature,  and  art, 


32  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

and  at  the  same  time  within  his  mental  range ;  as,  when 
he  studies  direction,  connect  with  it  some  beautiful 
poem  or  song  on  sunset,  or  some  pathetic  narration  of 
noble  deeds  in  Arctic  regions  ;  some  attractive  descrip- 
tion of  that  icy  wonderland,  and  its  inhabitants  with 
their  queer  homes  and  customs.'  Thus  in  every  phase 
of  work  during  these  early  years,  so  that  this  attractive, 
and  also  useful  fund,  may  be  stored  by  their  active 
memories  and  render  lighter  in  both  senses,  and  more 
interesting  all  the  work  of  future  years.  In  education, 
a  great  deal  depends  upon  the  first  impressions  of  the 
work. 

The  third  thought  is  that  in  all  phases  of  education, 
inaccuracies  of  pronunciation,  of  sentence  construction, 
of  facts,  etc.,  should  be  rigidly  excluded,  as  their  ten- 
dency is  to  sink  into  the  mind  and  remain  there. 

The  undeveloped  state  in  the  child,  of  the  power  to 
reason^  except  in  the  presence  of  things^  determines  that  in 
his  early  stages,  and  in  the  beginning  of  many  kinds  of 
work  in  more  advanced  stages,  he  is  not  to  learn  by  any 
abstract  logical  process.  The  teacher,  it  is  true,  is  to 
have  clearly  in  mind  a  logical  line  of  work  and  adhere 
to  it,  but  his  actual  teaching  will  be  fragmentary, 
changing  apparently,  and  full  of  illustrations  as  requir- 
ed by  the  needs  of  individual  minds. 

The  real  subject  is  the  individual  mind,  and  the  prob- 
lem is  how  to  call  forth  interest  and  active  thought 
without  making  too  great  a  demand  upon  the  logical  fac- 
ulty. To  accomplish  this,  two  things  are  required,  one 
negative  and  the  other  positive.  The  first  is,  that  as  a 
general  rule,  no  attempt  should  be  made  to  present  to 


THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  33 

the  mind,  at  any  given  time,  that  which  is  not  needed  and 
can  not  he  nsed  at  that  time,  under  the  thought  that  it 
may  be^useful  hereafter.  Usually,  that  which  is  present- 
ed under  such  conditions  does  not  arouse  interest  and 
thought,  but  becomes  useless  encumbrance.  Nothing 
should  be  taught  which  is  not  needed  and  capable  of 
being  used  at  the  time,  and  which  is  not  the  best  and 
most  easy  way  of  meeting  the  want. 

"  Wouldst  thou  possess  thy  heritage,  essay 

By  use  to  render  it  thine  own! 

What  we  employ  not  but  impedes  our  way, 

That  which  the  hour  creates  that  can  it  use  alone." 

—Goethe's  Faust. 

The  second  requirement  is  that  all  early  work  and  in 
general  the  beginning  stages  of  advanced  work,  should 
be  as  before  intimated,  presented  to  the  senses,  or  'pic- 
tured out '  to  the  mind.  The  child  under  such  circum- 
stances is  able  to  reason,  to  think;  but  his  thinking  will 
be  in  the  presence  of  things,  and  his  power  of  abstract 
thinking,  when  it  does  come,  will  be  a  natural  develop- 
ment from  his  sensuous  thinking.  The  usual  mistake 
is  to  thrust  an  abstract  process  of  learning  upon  the  child 
by  requiring  him  to  think  in  the  presence  of  nothing,  or 
of  mere  words.  '  Picture  out'  to  the  body's  eye  or  to 
the  mind's  eye,  is  the  first  principle  of  early  teaching  if 
individual  minds  are  to  be  made  the  real  subject 

The  general  directions  under  this  point  are : 

1.  'See ;  examine  what  you  see;  lastly,  answer. 

2.  Make  no  attempt  to  remember  anything  you 
can  not  put  before  the  eye,  or  picture  to  the  mind's  eye. 
Memory  is  not  visible  or  mental  sight ;  think  in  shape. 


34  THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

Examples  may  tend  to  set  forth  these  thoughts  more 
clearly. 

The  pupil  is  asked  to  describe  an  apple.  Tlie  usual 
tendency  is  to  close  the  eyes  and  evolve  the  answer  from 
the  inner  consciousness;  but  the  mind's  development 
as  it  is,  and  as  it  is  to  be,  requires  that  the  pupil  should 
picture  to  himself  the  thing  to  be  described  in  as  many 
aspects  as  possible,  one  by  one,  compare  it  with  things 
most  like  it;  and  then  present  the  peculiar  points  that 
make  it  different  from  other  things. 

The  process  is : 

1.  Picture  an  apple.  Put  one  before  the  senses  if 
possible;  if  not,  picture  it  in  the  mind. 

2.  Analyze,  i.e.,  note  its  shape,  color,  texture,  parts — 
pips,  core,  skin,  juice,  etc. 

3.  Compare  with  other  things. 

All  these  things  are  seen,  as  soon  as  the  apple  is  seen, 
and  intelligent  sight  gives  the  description  required.  The 
untrained  mind  begins  to  try  to  remember  what  it  knows 
about  an  apple. 

The  requirement  may  be  to  describe  a  field.  This 
should  bring  forth  the  condition  at  a  particular  time. 
The  untrained  child  would  evolve  from  his  inner  con- 
sciousness. If  the  work  is  done  according  to  the  princi- 
ple under  discussion  the  process  would  be  somewhat  as 
follows : — 

1.  See  or  picture  to  the  mind  the  field:  as,  time  of 
year — autumn;  time  of  day — afternoon;  kind,  of  day — 
clouds  and  sun ;  stubble  ;  ground  broken  and  uneven ; 
bounded  by  hills  on  one  side ;  trees,  small  lake,  cattle ; 
direction  of  view — west. 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  35 

2.  Reflect  upon  these  elements. 

3.  Describe. 

Again,  the  pupil  may  be  asked  to  state  the  meaning 
of  'when.'  According  to  the  thought  being  considered, 
the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  see  it  in  its  relations. 
This  may  be  done  by  constructing  sentences  that  picture 
out  the  two  meanings  of  'when,'  thus : 

"When  Ft.  Sumter  was  fired  upon,  compromise  was 
at  an  end.'* 

"When  he  was  in  the  army,  he  wrote  for  the  press." 

The  word  in  the  first  sentence  means  the  exact  mo- 
ment, but  in  the  second  it  means  at  various  indeter- 
minate times.  It  thus  appears  that  the  sight  of  two 
well-selected  sentences  in  which  'when'  occurs,  reveals 
that  either  a  particular  moment  is  meant,  or  any  time 
in  a  given  period — two  very  different  thoughts.'* 

9  is  f  of  what  number  ?  may  be  asked. 

The  absence  in  the  child  of  the  power  to  reason 
abstractly  determines  what  in  regard  to  such  work? 
John  Stuart  Mill  says:  ''''The  fundaTjiental  truths  of  the 
science  of  number  all  rest  upon  the  evidence  of  the  senses ; 
they  are  proved  by  showing  to  our  eyes,  that  any  given 
number  of  objects — ten  balls,  for  example — may  by 
separation  and  re-arrangement,  exhibit  all  the  different 
sets  of  numbers,  the  sum  of  which  is  equal  to  ten. 

All  improved  methods  of  teaching  arithmetic  to 
children  proceed  upon  a  knowledge  of  this  fact.  All 
who  wish  to  carry  the  child* s  mind  along  with  them  in 
learning  arithmetic — all  who  wish  to  teach  numbers  and 


^'X.TIUUMa. 


36  THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

not  mere  cyphers — now  teach  it  through  the  evidence 
of  the  senses." 

One  who  does  not  hold  to  this  view  may  attempt  to 
have  the  child  see  the  relations  in  the  above  problem 
by  some  such  analysis  as  the  following : 

■^  is  "I-  of  f .  If  9  is  f  of  the  number,  \  of  the  number 
is  ^  of  9,  which  is  3.  f  of  the  number  equal  the  num- 
ber. If  \  of  the  number  is  3,  |  of  the  number,  or  the 
number  is  4  times  3,  which  is  12.  Therefore,  9  is  |  of 
12. 

One,  however,  who  sees  clearly  that  a  principle  of 
early  teaching  is — the  relations  must  be  presented  to  the 
senses,  or  pictured  to  the  mind's  eye — will  put  the  rela- 
tions before  the  pupil  in  some  concrete  way  :  as, 


oooooo     ooo     ooo 


9 

and  then  ask  him  what  he  sees.  Among  the  many  rela- 
tions he  will  perceive  in  a  way  that  will  enable  him  to 
hold  it,  and  also  to  more  readily  see  other  relations,  that 
9  is  i  of  12. 

The  teacher  who  has  no  opportunity  to  study  psy- 
chology as  given  in  books,  will  clearly  see  this  mental 
fact  that  is  now  under  view — the  rational  faculty,  the 
power  to  learn  in  an  abstract  way  through  the  logical 
faculty  is  undeveloped  in  the  child — if  he  studies  with 
care  and  intelligence  the  phenomena  of  his  own  mind, 
and  the  individual  minds  of  the  children  through  the 
medium  of  their  words,  actions,  and  the  play  of  their 
countenances. 


THE  THEORY  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  37 

Such  study  will  also  show,  as  previously  indicated, 
that  the  power  of  continuous  attention  is  not  possessed 
by  the  child.  That  knowledge  will  prevent  many  mis- 
takes on  the  part  ot  the  teacher  by  his  consequent  per- 
ception of  the  truth  that  attention  is  but  little  more  to 
be  assumed  than  a  knowledge  of  the  multiplication 
table,  and  that  it  must  be  taught  as  a  habit,  just  as  the 
other  must  as  an  element  of  knowledge. 

The  teacher  has  an  important  educational  principle 
when  he  understands  that  the  germ  of  attention,  the 
capacity  to  attend,"  is  the  condition  of  education,  but 
that  the  power  to  attend  closely  for  any  considerable 
time  is  the  result  of  education.  It  will  then  be  manifest 
that  inattention  is  natural  in  the  child,  and  that  the  prob- 
lem is  to  determine  the  kind  of  teaching  that  will  build 
up  the  habit  of  attention ;  the  kind  that  will  not  foster 
inattention. 

Observation  having  shown  the  teacher  that  inatten- 
tion is  natural  in  the  child,  reflection  will  make  it  clear 
that  among  the  things  by  which  inattention  is  fostered 
are  the  following: — 

1.  Apathetic,  uninterested  demeanor  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher. 

2.  Too  little  attention  to  trifles  and  to  beginnings 
in  laxness  in  recitations,  and  in  disorder. 

3.  Too  much  attention  to  them,  and  the  setting 
over  against  each  point  of  inattention  and  disorder  its 
fixed  arbitrary  penalty. 

4.  The  concentration  of  the  teacher's  attention  on 
the  point  being  discussed  in  the  class,  and  on  the  pupil 
reciting,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other  members. 


38  THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

5.  Failure  to  train  the  pupils  into  careful  habits  of 
attentive  study.  Pupils  frequently  sit  at  their  desks 
during  their  study  hours  attentive  as  to  the  eye,  but  in- 
attentive as  to  the  mind.  In  spirit  they  are  absent, 
although  the  eye  travels  along  each  line  and  the  words 
come  as  images  before  the  mind.  Often  after  a  page  or 
more  has  been  conned  in  this  mechanical  way  the  mind 
awakens  to  the  fact  that  the  thought  contained  in  the 
words  has  been  in  no  sense  obtained.  In  all  such  cases,^ 
which  are  not  infrequent,  the  pupil  could  appropriately 
say  with  the  poet : 

My  soul  to-day, 

Is  far  away, 

Sailing  the  Vesuvian  Bay ; 

My  winged  boat, 

A  bird  afloat, 

Swims  round  the  purple  peaks  remote. 

This  habit  will  necessarily  reappear  in  the  recitation 
room. 

6.  Poor  arrangement  of  the  class  as  to  its  position 
in  relation  to  the  teacher.  Some  hold  that  if  the  class 
ie  standing,  the  arrangement  should  be  the  horse-shoe 
shape,  in  order  that  all  may  be  equally  within  spiritual 
touch  of  the  teacher. 

7.  Inattention  to  the  bodily  attitude  of  the  pupil 
when  studying  and  when  reciting.  It  is  said  that  Lord 
Byron  in  preparing  to  write  was  as  scrupulous  in  regard 
to  his  appearance  as  he  would  have  been,  had  he  been 
preparing  for  a  royal  reception.  In  a  less  degree  such 
was  the  fact  in  regard  to  Washington  Irving.  And  it  is 
generally  observed  by  any  one  who  gives  attention  to  it^ 
that  he  writes  more  logically  and  more  pointedly  when 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  39 

using  pen  and  ink  than  when  writing  with  a  pencil. 
These  things  indicate  the  law. 

8.  Too  long  lessons,  and  too  great  a  length  of  school 
hours. 

Elaborate  the  eight  points  given,  and  make  it  clear,  why  the 
habit  of  inattention  becomes  more  firmly  fixed  by  means  of 
them. 

Omitting  all  study  of  psychology  as  presented  in 
books,  if  need  be,  (such  study,  however,  being  neces- 
sary to  the  ideal  teacher,)  the  close  study  of  the  pheno- 
mena of  his  own  mind  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  and 
the  patient,  intelligent,  and  persistent  study  of  child 
nature  will  necessarily  equip  the  teacher  with  several 
additional  truths  in  regard  to  education;  with  the 
truths : — 

1.  That  there  can  be  no  thinking  without  materi- 
als for  thought. 

2.  That  there  can  be  no  materials  for  thought  with- 
out observation. 

3.  That  in  the  beginning  of  its  career  the  child  ob- 
serves and  gathers  materials  for  thought  naturally  and 
spontaneously. 

4.  That  very  early  in  his  school  course,  through 
familiarity  with  the  surface  of  things,  through  ignor- 
ance and  repression  on  the  part  of  his  instructors, 
through  memory  and  rote-work,  both  the  desire  and  the 
power  to  observe  are  to  a  large  degree  non-existent  in 
the  average  school  child.  ^^Having  by  our  method  in- 
dticed  helplessness,  we  nuike  the  helplessness  a  reason  for  our 
method,^''  and  continue  the  cramming  and  telling  pro- 


40  THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

cess,  on  the  ground  that  the  child  can  not  observe  and 
decide  for  himself. 

5.  That  the  fundamental,  and  hence  the  absolutely- 
necessary  first  step  in  conscious  education  is  to  implant 
in  the  child,  first  the  desire,  and  second  the  habit  of 
conscious  observation — the  habit  of  consciously  gather- 
ing the  material  for  its  thinking. 

One  without  the  power  of  accurate  observation  is  not 
only  without  the  power  of  gathering  the  materials  for 
his  thinking,  but  he  is  also  deprived  in  a  large  degree 
of  legitimate  enjoyment.  A  person  who  is  not  firmly 
grounded  in  the  habit  of  observing  is  in  the  same  con- 
dition as  is  one  who  is  ignorant  of  Latin.  Schopen- 
hauer says,  ''One  who  is  without  Latin  is  as  a  man 
walking  through  a  beautiful  region  in  a  fog.  The  hori- 
zon is  close  about  him." 

A  study  of  the  mind  of  the  average  pupil  will  make 
clear  both  the  practical  absence  of  the  power  of  obser- 
vation and  the  absolute  necessity  for  it.  Pestalozzi's 
fundamental  principle  was,  ^'Observation  is  the  absolute 
basis  of  all  knowledge." 

The  power  and  the  benefit  of  observation,  i.  e.,  of  the 
habit  of  seeing  things  in  nature,  art,  and  books,  and 
reflecting  in  the  presence  of  them  can  scarcely  be  over- 
estimated. "Turner,  the  eminent  land-scape  painter," 
says  an  English  writer,  "was  often  observed  to  spend  a 
whole  day  in  throwing  pebbles  into  the  water  while 
others  were  working  around  him.  His  power  of  obser- 
vation was  so  great,  and  his  patience  and  love  so  un- 
wearied, that  with  his  trained  eye  he  could  find  intense 
interest,  and  gather  lessons  above  all  price  from  the  rip- 


THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.     '  41 

pie,  and  the  wave,  and  the  play  of  light,  and  harmon- 
ious discord  of  varying  movements,  from  the  common 
curves,  made  by  a  common  stone,  falling  into  common 
water ;  over  which  the  untrained  eye  and  mind  could 
not  spend  a  profitable  moment.  Before  his  eyes  was 
spread  the  ever  stationary,  ever  moving  mirror,  the 
changeful  eternity  of  light  that  flows,  the  gliding  earth- 
born  light  of  water,  with  its  strange  memories  of  higher 
worlds,  and  strange  affinities  to  cloud  and  sky,  free 
beyond  all  earthly  things  to  come  and  go,  still  loving  to 
borrow,  as  it  moves,  brightness  from  sky,  and  gleams 
from  cloud,  or  shore,  and  welcoming  in  its  bosom,  like 
a  living  thing,  all  images  that  reach  it  in  its  course ;  he 
stood  and  looked  upon  it,  and  tried  to  unlock  its  secrets, 
and  conscious  or  unconscious  of  the  full  interpretation, 
caught  some  glimpses  of  the  great  illuminated  text  of 
the  book  of  the  thoughts  of  God,  appreciated  the  exqui- 
site subtlety  of  the  handwriting  of  speech  divine,  became 
a  kind  of  living  microscope  in  his  power  of  seeing  un- 
known beauty,  and  then  handed  on  to  us  non-seers  the 
gain  of  new  discovery  to  be  henceforth  a  part  of  the 
possession  of  the  world.  A  common  stone  thrown  into 
common  water  could  thus  become  a  prophet,  reveal- 
ing beauty  and  truth.  But  to  whom  does  the  prophet- 
voice  of  stones  and  water  speak  ?  A  careful  analysis 
will  show  that  the  great  painter,  the  genius,  could  see 
and  understand  because  he  had  learnt  by  years  of 
patient  work  to  observe  more  than  others^ 

The  difference  in  persons  as  to  their  power  to  observe, 
in  the  sense  in  which  Pestalozzi  uses  the  tenn,  and  the 
value  of  the  habit  may  be  made  more  vivid  by  consider- 


42  THE  THEORY   OF   THE  SCHOOL. 

ing  the  following,  in  which  an  English  school-master 
converses  with  two  of  his  pupils  concerning  their  em- 
ployment of  a  holiday  : 

Master.  "Well,  Robert,  where  have  you  been  walking  this 
afternoon  ? 

Bobert.  I  have  been,  sir,  to  Broom-heath,  and  so  around  by 
the  windmill  upon  Camp-mount,  and  home  through  the 
meadows  by  the  river  side, 

M.     Well,  that's  a  pleasant  round. 

a.  I  thought  it  very  dull,  sir ;  I  scarcely  met  with  a  single 
person.  I  had  rather  by  half  have  gone  along  the  turnpike 
road. 

M.  Why,  if  seeing  men  and  horses  is  your  object,  you 
would,  indeed,  be  better  entertained  on  the  high-road.  But 
did  you  see  William? 

B.  We  set  out  together,  but  he  lagged  behind  in  the  lane, 
so  I  walked  on  and  left  him. 

M.    That  was  a  pity.    He  would  have  been  company  for  you. 

i2.  Oh,  he  is  so  tedious,  always  stopping  to  look  at  this  thing 
and  that !    I  dare  say  he  is  not  home  yet. 

M.    Here  he  comes.     Well,  William,  where  have  you  been  ? 

W.  O,  sir,  the  pleasantest  walk  !  I  went  all  over  Broom- 
heath,  and  so  up  to  the  mill  at  the  top  of  the  hill,  and  then 
down  among  the  green  meadows  by  the  side  of  the  river. 

M.  Why,  that  is  just  the  round  Robert  has  been  taking,  and 
he  complains  of  its  dullness,  and  prefers  the  high-road. 

W.  I  wonder  at  that.  I  am  sure  I  hardly  took  a  step  that 
did  not  delight  me,  and  I  have  brought  my  handkerchief  full 
of  curiosities  home. 

M.  Suppose,  then,  you  give  us  some  account  of  what  amus- 
ed you  so  much.    I  fancy  it  will  be  as  new  to  Robert  as  to  me. 

W.  I  will,  sir.  The  lane  leading  to  the  heath,  you  know,  is 
close  and  sandy,  so  I  did  not  mind  it  much,  but  made  the  best 
of  my  way.  However,  I  spied  a  curious  thing  enough  in  the 
hedge.     It  was  an  old  crab  tree,  out  of  which  grew  a  great 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  43 

bunch  of  something  green,  quite  different  from  the  tree  itself. 
Here  is  a  bunch  of  it. 

M.  Ah!  this  is  misseltoe,  a  plant  of  great  fame  for  the  use 
made  of  it  by  the  Druids  of  old  in  their  religious  rites  and  in- 
cantations. It  bears  a  very  slimy  white  berry,  of  which  bird- 
lime may  be  made,  whence  its  Latin  name  of  viscus.  It  is  one 
of  those  plants  which  do  not  grow  in  the  ground  by  a  root  of 
their  own,  but  fix  themselves  upon  other  plants  ;  whence  they 
have  been  humorously  styled  parasitical,  as  being  hangers-on 
or  dependents.  It  was  the  misseltoe  of  the  oak  that  the  Druids 
particularly  honoured. 

W.  A  little  further  on  I  saw  a  green  woodpecker  fly  to  a 
tree,  and  run  up  the  trunk  like  a  cat. 

M.  That  was  to  seek  for  insects  in  the  bark,  on  which  they 
live.  They  bore  holes  with  their  strong  bills  for  that  purpose, 
and  do  much  damage  to  the  trees  by  it. 

Tr.     What  beautiful  birds  they  are  ! 

M.  Yes  ;  they  have  been  called,  from  their  colour  and  size, 
the  English  parrot. 

W.  When  I  got  upon  the  open  heath,  how  charming  it  was ! 
The  air  seemed  so  fresh,  and  the  prospect  on  every  side  so  free 
and  unbounded !  Then  it  was  all  covered  with  gay  flowers, 
many  of  which  I  had  never  observed  before.  There  were  at 
least  three  kinds  of  heath  (I  have  them  in  my  handkerchief 
here)  and  gorse,  and  broom,  and  bellflower,  and  many  others 
of  all  colours,  that  I  shall  beg  you  presently  to  tell  me  the 
names  of. 

M.    That  I  will,  readily. 

W.  I  saw,  too,  several  birds  that  were  new  to  me.  There 
was  a  pretty  grayish  one,  of  the  size  of  a  lark,  that  was  hopping 
about  some  great  stones ;  and  when  he  flew  he  showed  a  great 
deal  of  white  above  his  tail. 

M.  That  was  a  wheat-ear.  They  are  reckoned  very  delicious 
birds  to  eat,  and  frequent  the  open  downs  in  Sussex,  and  some 
other  countries,  in  great  numbers. 

W.    There  was  a  flock  of  lapwings  upon  a  marshy  part  of  the 


44  THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

heath,  that  amused  me  very  much.  As  I  came  near  them, 
some  of  them  kept  flying  round  just  over  my  head,  and  cry- 
ing pewet  so  distinctly  one  might  fancy  they  almost  spoke.  I 
thought  I  should  have  caught  one  of  them,  for  he  flew  as  if  one 
of  hijB  wings  was  broken  and  often  tumbled  close  to  the  ground; 
but  as  I  came  near,  he  always  made  a  shift  to  get  away. 

M.  Ha,  ha !  you  were  finely  taken  in  then !  This  was  all  an 
artifice  of  the  bird  to  entice  you  away  from  its  nest ;  for  they 
build  upon  the  bare  ground,  and  their  nests  would  easily  be 
observed,  did  they  not  draw  ofi"  the  attention  of  intruders  by 
their  loud  cries  and  counterfeit  lameness. 

W.  I  wish  I  had  known  that,  for  he  led  me  a  long  chase, 
often  over  shoes  in  water.  However,  it  was  the  cause  of  my 
falling  in  with  an  old  man  and  a  boy  who  were  cutting  and 
piling  up  turf  for  fuel,  and  I  had  a  good  deal  of  talk  with  them 
about  the  manner  of  preparing  the  turf,  and  the  price  it  sells 
at.  They  gave  me,  too,  a  creature  I  never  saw  before — a  young 
yiper,  which  they  had  just  killed,  together  with  its  dam.  I 
have  seen  several  common  snakes,  but  this  is  thicker  in  pro- 
portion, and  of  a  darker  colour  than  they  are. 

M.  True.  Vipers  frequent  those  turfy  boggy  grounds  pretty 
much,  and  I  have  known  several  turf-cutters  bitten  by  them. 

W.    They  are  very  venomous,  are  they  not  ? 

M.  Enough  so  to  make  their  wounds  painful  and  dangerous, 
though  they  seldom  prove  fatal. 

W.  Well — I  then  took  my  course  up  to  the  windmill  on  the 
mount.  I  climbed  up  the  steps  of  the  mill  in  order  to  get  a 
better  view  of  the  country  round.  What  an  extensive  pros- 
pect !  I  counted  fifteen  church-steeples  ;  and  I  saw  several 
gentlemen's  houses  peeping  out  from  the  midst  of  green  woods 
and  plantations ;  and  I  could  trace  the  windings  of  the  river 
all  along  the  low  grounds,  till  it  was  lost  behind  a  ridge  of  hills. 
But  I'll  tell  you  what  I  mean  to  do,  sir,  if  you  will  give  me 
leave. 

M.    What  is  that  ? 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  45 

W.  I  will  go  again,  and  take  with  me  Carey's  county  map, 
by  which  I  shall  probably  be  able  to  make  out  most  of  the 
places. 

M.  You  shall  have  it,  and  I  will  go  with  you,  and  take  my 
pocket  telescope. 

W.  I  shall  be  very  glad  of  that.  Well — a  thought  struck 
me,  that  as  the  hill  is  called  Camp-mount,  there  might  probably 
be  some  remains  of  ditches  and  mounds  with  which  I  have 
read  that  camps  are  surrounded.  And  I  really  believe  that  I 
discovered  something  of  that  sort  running  round  one  side  of 
the  mount. 

if.  Very  likely  you  might.  I  know  antiquaries  have  de- 
scribed such  remains  as  existing  there,  which  some  suppose 
to  be  Roman,  others  Danish.  We  will  examine  them  further, 
when  we  go. 

W.  From  the  hill  I  went  straight  down  to  the  meadows 
below,  and  walked  on  the  side  of  a  brook  that  runs  into  the 
river.  It  was  all  bordered  with  reeds  and  flags  and  tall  flower- 
ing plants,  quite  different  from  those  I  had  seen  on  the  heath. 
As  I  was  getting  down  the  bank  to  reach  one  of  them,  I  heard 
something  plunge  into  the  water  near  me.  It  was  a  large 
water-rat,  and  I  saw  it  swim  over  to  the  other  side,  and  go  into 
its  hole.  There  were  a  great  many  large  dragon-flies  all  about 
the  stream.  I  caught  one  of  the  finest,  and  have  him  here  in 
a  leaf.  But  how  I  longed  to  catch  a  bird  that  I  saw  hovering 
over  the  water,  and  every  now  and  then  darting  down  into  it ! 
It  was  all  over  a  mixture  of  the  most  beautiful  green  and  blue, 
with  some  orange  colour.  It  was  somewhat  less  than  a  thrush, 
and  had  a  large  head  and  bill,  and  a  short  tail. 

Af.  I  can  tell  you  what  that  bird  was — a  kingfisher,  the  cele- 
brated halcyon  of  the  ancients,  about  which  so  many  tales  are 
told.  It  lives  on  fish,  which  it  catches  in  the  manner  you  saw. 
It  builds  in  holes  in  the  banks,  and  is  a  shy  retiring  bird,  never 
seen  far  from  the  stream  where  it  inhabits. 

W.    I  must  try  to  get  another  sight  at  him,  for  I  never  saw 


46  THE   THEORY  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

a  bird  that  pleased  me  so  much.  Well — I  followed  this  little 
brook  till  it  entered  the  river,  and  then  took  the  path  that  leads 
along  the  bank.  On  the  opposite  side  I  observed  several  little 
birds  running  along  the  shore,  and  making  a  piping  noise. 
They  were  brown  and  white,  and  about  as  large  as  a  snipe. 

M.  I  suppose  they  were  sand-pipers,  one  of  the  numerous 
family  of  birds  that  get  their  living  by  wading  among  the  shal- 
lows, and  picking  up  worms  and  insects. 

W.  There  were  a  great  many  swallows,  too,  sporting  on  the 
surface  of  the  water,  that  entertained  me  with  their  motions. 
Sometimes  they  dashed  into  the  stream  ;  sometimes  they  pur- 
sued one  another  so  quickly  that  the  eye  could  scarcely  follow 
them.  In  one  place,  where  a  high  steep  sand-bank  rose  directly 
over  the  river,  I  observed  many  of  them  go  in  and  out  of  holes 
with  which  the  bank  was  bored  full. 

M.  Those  were  sand-martins,  the  smallest  of  our  species  of 
swallows.  They  are  of  a  mouse-color  above  and  white  beneath. 
They  make  their  nests  and  bring  up  their  young  in  these  holes, 
which  run  a  great  depth,  and  by  their  situation  are  secure 
from  all  plunderers. 

W.  A  little  further  I  saw  a  man  in  a  boat,  who  was  catch- 
ing eels  in  an  odd  way.  He  had  a  long  pole  with  broad  iron 
prongs  at  the  end,  just  like  Neptune's  trident,  only  there  were 
five  instead  of  three.  This  he  pushed  straight  down  among 
the  mud  in  the  deepest  parts  of  the  river,  and  brought  up  the 
-eels  sticking  between  the  prongs. 

M.    I  have  seen  this  method.    It  is  called  spearing  eels. 

W.  While  I  was  looking  at  him,  a  heron  came  flying  over 
my  head,  with  his  large  flagging  wings.  He  lit  at  the  next  turn 
of  the  river,  and  I  crept  softly  behind  the  bank  to  watch  his 
motions.  He  had  waded  into  the  water  as  far  as  his  long  legs 
would  carry  him,  and  was  standing  with  his  neck  drawn  in, 
looking  intently  on  the  stream.  Presently  he  darted  his  long 
bill  as  quick  as  lightning  into  the  water,  and  drew  out  a  fish, 
which  he  swallowed.      I  saw  him  catch  another  in  the  same 


THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  47 

manner.  He  then  took  alarm  at  some  noise  I  made,  and  flew 
away  slowly  to  a  wood  at  some  distance,  where  he  settled. 

M.  Probably  his  nest  was  there,  for  herons  build  upon  the 
loftiest  trees  they  can  find,  and  sometimes  in  society  together, 
like  rooks.  Formerly,  when  these  birds  were  valued  for  the 
amusement  of  hawking,  many  gentlemen  had  their  Iieronries, 
and  a  few  are  still  remaining. 

W.    I  think  they  are  the  largest  wild  birds  we  have.' 

M.  They  are  of  great  length  and  spread  of  wing,  but  their 
bodies  are  comparatively  small. 

W.  I  then  turned  homeward  across" the  meadows,  where  I 
stopped  awhile  to  look  at  a  large  flock  of  starlings  which  kept 
flying  about  at  no  great  distance.  I  could  not  tell  at  first  what 
to  make  of  them ;  for  they  rose  altogether  from  the  ground  as 
thick  as  a  swarm  of  bees,  and  formed  themselves  into  a  kind  of 
black  cloud,  hovering  over  the  field.  After  taking  a  short 
round,  they  settled  again,  and  presently  rose  again  in  the  same 
manner.    I  dare  say  there  were  hundreds  of  them. 

M.  Perhaps  so  ;  for  in  the  fenny  countries  their  flocks  are  so 
numerous  as  to  break  down  whole  acres  of  reeds  by  settling 
on  them.  This  disposition  of  starlings  to  fly  in  close'swarms 
was  remarked  even  by  Homer,  who  compares  the  foe  flying 
from  one  of  his  heroes,  to  a  cloud  of  stares  retiring  dismayed 
at  the  approach  of  the  hawk. 

W.  After  I  had  left  the  meadows  I  crossed  the  corn-fields  in 
the  way  to  our  house,  and  passed  close  by  a  deep  marl  pit. 
Looking  into  it,  I  saw  in  one  of  the  sides  a  cluster  of  what  I 
took  to  be  shells ;  and  upon  going  down,  I  picked  up  a  clod  of 
marl,  which  was  quite  full  of  them  ;  but  how  sea  shells  could 
get  there,  I  cannot  imagine. 

M.  I  do  not  wonder  at  your  surprise,  since  many  philoso- 
phers have  been  much  perplexed  to  account  for  the  same 
appearance.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  great  quantities  of 
shells  and  relics  of  marine  animals  even  in  the  depths  of  high 
mountains,  very  remote  from  the  sea.      They  are  certainly 


48  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

proofs  that  the  earth  was  once  in  a  very  different  state  from 
what  it  is  at  present ;  but  in  what  manner  and  how  long  ago 
the  changes  took  place,  can  only  be  guessed  at. 

W.  I  got  to  the  high  field  next  our  house  just  as  the  sun 
was  setting,  and  I  stood  looking  at  it  till  it  was  quite  lost. 
What  a  glorious  sight !  The  clouds  were  tinged  with  purple 
and  crimson  and  yellow  of  all  shades  and  hues,  and  the  clear 
sky  varied  from  blue  to  a  fine  green  at  the  horizon.  But  how 
large  the  sun  appears  just  as  it  sets  !  I  think  it  seems  twice  as 
large  as  when  it  is  overhead. 

M.  It  does  appear  so,  and  you  probably  have  observed  the 
same  apparent  enlargement  of  the  moon  at  its  rising. 

W.    I  have  ;    but  pray  what  is  the  reason  of  this  ? 

M.  It  is  an  optical  deception  depending  upon  principles 
which  I  cannot  well  explain  to  you  till  you  know  more  of  that 
branch  of  science.  But  what  a  number  of  new  ideas  the  after- 
noon's walk  has  afforded  you  !  I  do  not  wonder  that  you  found 
it  amusing ;  it  has  been  very  instructive,  too.  Did  you  see 
nothing  of  all  these  sights,  Robert  ? 

R.  I  saw  some  of  them,  but  I  did  not  take  particular  notice 
of  them. 

M.     Why  not  ? 

R.  1  don't  know.  I  did  not  care  about  them,  and  made 
the  best  of  my  way  home. 

M.  That  would  have  been  right  if  you  had  been  sent  on  a 
message;  but  as  you  only  walked  for  amusement,  it  would 
have  been  wiser  to  have  sought  out  as  many  sources  of  it  as 
possible.  But  so  it  is — one  man  walks  through  the  world  with 
his  eyes  open,  and  another  with  them  shut ;    and  upon  this 

DIFFERENCE   DEPENDS   ALL  THE   SUPERIORITY   OF  KNOWLEDGE   THE 

ONE  ACQUIRES  ABOVE  THE  OTHER.  I  havc  kuowu  sailors  who  had 
been  in  all  quarters  of  the  world,  and  could  tell  you  nothing 
but  the  signs  of  the  tippliug-houses  they  frequented  in  the 
different  ports,  and  the  price  and  the  quality  of  the  liquor.  On 
the  other  hand,  a  Franklin  could  not  cross  the  Channel  with- 


THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  49 

out  making  some  observations  useful  to  mankind.  "While  many 
a  vacant,  thoughtless  youth  is  whirled  throughout  Europe 
without  gaining  a  single  idea  worth  crossing  a  street  for,  the 
observing  eye  and  inquiring  mind  find  matter  for  improvement 
and  deHght  in  every  ramble  in  town  or  country.  Do  you  then, 
William,  continue  to  make  use  of  your  eyes ;  and  you,  Robert, 
learn  that  eyes  were  given  you  to  use." 

1.  Determine  the  scope  of  the  term  observation,  used  in 
the  Pestalozzian  sense. 

2.  Consider  critically  the  foregoing  conversation  as  express- 
ing an  instance  of  the  habit  and  the  power  of  observation. 

3.  How  can  arithmetic  be  taught  so  that  the  tendency  shall 
be  to  produce  the  habit  exemplified  in  William  ?  In  Robert  ? 
The  same  inquiry  in  regard  to  geography,  reading,  etc. 

It  may  be  claimed,  however,  that  the  difference  be- 
tween 1,he  pupils  cited  is  not  one  of  education  but  of  in- 
heritance. But  what  would  that  mean  other  than  this  : 
that  for  generations  back  of  William,  his  ancestors  had 
been  so  trained  in  accurate  habits  of  observation,  that 
the  habit  was  transmitted  to  him,  just  as  his  physical 
characteristics  were.  The  mind  of  a  pupil  is,  to  a  degree, 
an  art  product,  representing  in  its  peculiar  nature,  the 
education  and  training  not  only  of  z^s  period  of  existence, 
but  of  many  generations  in  the  past. 

A  child's  mind,  with  its  peculiar  habits  and  powers  is 
the  joint  product  of  the  culture  of  its  own  brief  time, 
and  of  congenital  endowments  resulting  from  the  culture 
of  its  ancestry  for  ages  back  ;  so  the  difference  between 
two  persons  in  respect  of  their  power  to  observe  and  to 
enjoy  because  of  that  power,  is,  after  all,  the  result,  at 
least  to  a  large  degree,  of  education,  conferred  some- 
where along  the  line  of  life. 

6 


50  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

In  Smiles'  Self  Help,  it  is  truthfully  said,  ^^It  is  the 
close  observation  of  little  things  which  is  the  secret  of  success 
in  business,  in  art,  in  science,  and  in  every  pursuit  of  life. 
Human  knowledge  is  but  an  accumulation  of  small 
facts,  made  by  successive  generations  of  men,  the  little 
bits  of  knowledge  and  experience  carefully  treasured 
up  by  them  growing  at  length  into  a  mighty  pyramid. 
Though  many  of  these  facts  and  observations  seemed 
in  the  first  instance  to  have  but  slight  significance,  they 
are  all  found  to  have  their  eventual  uses,  and  to  fit  into 
their  proper  places." 

Arising  from  the  inter-relations  of  all  of  the  foregoing 
thoughts,  several  conclusions  present  themselves : 

Mind  is  the  real  subject  of  education  ;  the  individual 
mind  of  each  child ;  this  individual  mind  in  its  two 
clearly  marked  stages  of  preparation  and  of  use. 

The  teacher,  in  order  to  become  an  artist,  or  even  a 
fair  mechanic,  must  study  this  plastic,  living  material. 

It  may  be  studied  in  its  general  characteristics,  as 
presented  in  books ;  or  in  a  more  individual  sense,  as 
embodied  and  manifesting  itself  in  the  teacher  himself, 
and  in  each  of  his  pupils. 

Even  if  the  teacher  is  unable,  on  account  of  means  or 
time,  to  study  mental  phenomena  and  laws  in  the  first 
way,  in  the  second  sense  they  are  ever  present  to  the 
mental  gaze. 

Even  the  unaided  study  of  mental  phenomena,  as 
exhibited  by  his  own  mind  and  by  those  of  the  pupils, 
leads  the  teacher  to  many  educational  truths  ;  among 
which  are: 


THE  THEORY  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  51 

The  imagination  and  the  spontaneous  memory  are 
active  in  early  years. 

The  child  does  not  learn  by  the  abstract  logical  fac- 
ulty. 

The  child  is  naturally  inattentive ;  the  power  of  at- 
tention is  the  result  of  education,  not  the  condition; 
though  embryo  attention  is  the  basis  of  all  growth  in 
mental  power. 

The  child  has  been  trained  away  from  his  natural  ten- 
dency to  observe. 

The  heart  is  the  avenue  to  the  intellect  no  less  than 
is  the  intellect  to  the  heart. 

The  individual  mind  of  the  child  is  the  true  subject 
of  the  educational  process ;  the  necessity  for  its  study  is 
absolute ;  the  opportunity  for  its  study  is  ever  present. — 
Such  is  the  clue  of  Ariadne,  and  without  it  the  teacher 
hopelessly  gropes. 


^^'S^'^^^fetsJK    A^^S^"^^ 


mi 


CHAPTER  II. 


THE  AIM  OF  EDUCATION. 


"What  are  a  nation's  possessions  ?  The  great  words  that  have  been  said' 
in  it;  the  great  deeds  that  have  been  done  in  it." 

A  distinguished  Chinese  scholar  who  was  travelling  in  the  United  States 
was  asked  what  he  considered  to  be  the  most  prominent  American  trait.  He 
quietly  and  promptly  replied,  "A  lack  of  honor." 

'•Conduct  is  three-fourths  of  life."— Matthew  Aenold. 

"But  you  were  always  a  good  man  of  business,  Jacob,"  faltered  Scroogei 
who  now  began  to  apply  this  to  himself.  "Business !"  cried  the  ghost  wring. 
ing  its  hands  again.  "Mankind  was  my  business.  The  common  welfare 
was  my  business.  Charity,  mercy,  forbearance  and  benevolence,  were,  allV 
my  business.  The  dealings  of  my  trade  were  but  a  drop  of  .water  in  the 
comprehensive  ocean  of  my  business !"— Dickens'  Christmas  Carols. 

"And  ye  shall  know  the  truth,  and  the  truth  shall  make  you  free." 

—John,  8:  32. 


ARGUMENT. 


The  greatest  idea  in  a  thing  is  its  final  purpose.  Purposes  are 
of  two  general  kinds — a  purpose  in  the  thing  itself,  and  its  re~ 
lated  purpose.  A  plant  has  a  purpose  in  itself  and  a  related! 
purpose  (to  animals  and  to  men.)  An  animal  has  a  purpose  in- 
itself  and  a  related  purpose  (to  man.)  Man  has  a  purpose  in 
himself  and  a  related  purpose  (to  other  human  beings  and  tO' 
the  Infinite.)  Such  things  as  the  church,  the  state,  the  family^ 
business  society,  the  school,  a  school  board,  a  superintendent,, 
(as  such,)  a  teacher,  (as  such,)  a  course  of  study,  a  recitation^ 
etc.,  have  no  final  purpose  in  themselves — they  have  only  a 


THE  THEORY  OP  THE  SCHOOL.  53 


related  purpose.  Their  final  purpose  is  found  only  in  the  final 
purpose  of  man's  being.  The  final  purpose  of  a  thing  is  that 
alone  which  can  determine  the  conditions  of  its  existence  and 
•growth,  and  the  co-ordination  of  its  parts.  For  example,  the 
final  purpose  of  the  plant — the  purpose  in  itself — is  to  perpetu- 
ate its  species. 

This  determines  the  conditions  of  its  process  of  growth — light, 
heat,  moisture,  etc. — allowing  no  more  or  others,  permitting  no 
less  or  other  thaH  those  demanded  by  its  nature.  In  like 
manner  the  co-ordination  of  its  parts — root,  stem  and  leaves — is 
determined. 

Such  is  the  case  in  respect  to  the  animal ;  and  so  it  is  with 
man.  The  final  purpose  of  the  child  determines  the  conditions 
of  his  growth  in  school,  i.e.,  the  functions  of  the  school  board, 
fiuperintendent,  teacher,  nature  of  a  course  of  study,  whether 
he  is  to  do  his  own  thinking,  or  the  teacher  think  for  him,  the 
relative  training  to  be  given  to  intellect,  sensibility  and  will, 
the  purpose  of  any  branch  of  study,  the  purpose  of  a  recita- 
tion, etc. 

The  conditions  of  a  school  and  the  co-ordination  of  its  parts 
are  determined  by  nothing  in  itself.  They  are  determined  by 
its  final  purpose  (final  cause.)  The  final  purpose  or  cause  of  the 
school  is  found  in  the  final  purpose  or  cause  of  the  child's  being. 
The  purpose  of  the  child's  being  is  to  free  himself  from  the 
bonds  of  his  selfishness,  prejudice,  ignorance  ;  to  remove  the 
antithesis  that  exists  between  his  subjective  nature  and  objec- 
tive thought ;  to  elevate  him  to  his  species,  (rational  freedom.) 

The  attainment  of  rational  freedom,  or  the  process  of  true 
education,  involves  the  passage  of  mind  through  mind  (ob- 
jective thought)  into  mind.  (Mind  is  a  universal  substrate.) 
For  example,  Whittier  is  an  embodiment  of  life;  Snow  Bound 
is  an  embodiment  of  Whittier's  life  to  a  degree  ;  the  child  is 
an  embodiment  of  life.  The  education  of  the  child,  by  means 
■of  Snow  Bound,  consists  of  the  passage  of  the  life  of  Whittier 
through  Snow  Bound  into  the  life  of  the  child,  transforming  it 
to  a  degree,  implanting  in  it  some  of  the  elements  of  Whit- 
tier's nature,  and  to  that  extent  elevating  the  child  to  his 
species. 

The  same  process  of  life  passing  through  life  into  life  is  to  be 
«een  in  the  study  of  the  cotton-gin,  the  magnolia  tree,  in  the 
studv  of  any  idea  whatever.  That  is,  education  deals  with  life, 
not  lessons,  and  any  process  of  education  is  a  failure  that  bat- 
tens mainly  on  books — viewing  their  mastery  as  an  end.  Edu- 
cation, dealing  with  life  must  distinguish  between  the  child's 


54  THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 


higher  or  life  power  and  his  automatic  or  mechanical  power,  in 
order  to  determine  what  studies  minister  most  to  this  life  power 
because  of  the  presence  of  the  elements  of  the  higher  fife  in 
them,  and  what  ones  do  so  to  a  less  degree,  as  well  as  to  decide 
in  what  attitude  of  mind  to  approach  a  subject. 

The  four  things  herein  adverted  to  must  be  studied  for  a  two- 
fold purpose — to  make  clear  the  aim  of  school  and  education^ 
to  aid  in  seeing  the  thought  in  things. 


JN  order  to  adequately  comprehend  the  purpose  in 
education,  one  must  understand,  at  least  to  a 
degree : 

1.  The  ideas : 

a.  Final  Cause. 

b.  Rational  Freedom. 

2.  The  judgments : 

a.  Mind  is  a  universal  substrate,  i.e.,  everything 
is,  in  essence,  mind  or  thought. 

b.  Man  has  in  his  single  nature  a  dual  power — 
instrumental-power  and  character-power^  the  latter  consti- 
tuting man  as  man,  or  feeling,  in  distinction  from  man 
as  a  machine,  or  intellect. 

c.  Character-power  is  the  higher  element  in  man — 
the  life. 

Whittier  gives  expression  to  this  thought  by  saying 
in  reference  to  Webster, 

"When  faith  is  lost,  when  honor  dies, 
The  wa«  is  dead !" 

d.  Character-power  is  sensitive,  retiring,  in  the 
presence  of  force,  or  alien  feeling. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  56 

The  relative  value  of  instruction  and  education ;  of 
information  and  training ;  of  a  preparation  for  business 
in  a  technical  sense,  and  a  preparation  for  business  as 
defined  by  Marley's  ghost ;  of  intellectual-power  and 
character-power,  i.e.,  of  brain-education  and  heart-educa- 
tion is,  as  indicated,  to  be  comprehended  through  an 
insight  into  the  foregoing  ideas  and  judgments,  to  which 
the  mind  is  now  to  address  itself. 

FINAL    CAUSE. 

As  shown  by  Porter,  causes  have  been  divided  into 
four  classes  :  material,  formal,  efficient,  and  final. 

^Material  causes  are  the  material  elements  or  princi- 
ples which  compose  any  existence,  whether  the  matter 
is  bodily  or  spiritual. 

The  cause  termed  formal  is  the  property  or  properties 
which  constitute  the  essence,  logical  content j  form.  Thus 
used  the  cause  is  an  element  or  constitutive  principle. 

Efficient  causes  are  the  working  causes,  or  those  agents 
which  palpably  bring  about  an  efiect. 

The  fined  cause,  is  the  design  which  is  conceived  as 
impelling  and  directing  the  action  of  working  causes, 
until  the  result  appears,  e.  g.,  if  one  forms  a  purpose, 
the  result,  when  made  actual  is  the  end  of  a  series  of 
actions  or  events.  In  this  way  the  word  end  or  final 
comes  to  mean  a  purposed  result.  Thus  the  final  cause 
of  a  series  of  actions  is  the  result  of  the  series.  The  pur- 
pose is  called  a  catise  for  the  reason  that  it  is  conceived 
when  formed  as  originating  or  setting   in  motion   the 


56  THE   THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

series  of  acts  or  events  necessary  to  its  realization. 
Thus  the  final  cause  of  a  series  of  actions  is  the  purpose 
or  thought  which  gave  rise  to  the  series.  On  account  of 
this  double  view  the  idea  is  termed  a  final  cause,  i.  e.,  a 
cause  which  beginning  as  a  thought  works  itself  into  a 
fact  which  is  the  end  or  result  of  the  series  of  agencies 
set  in  motion  because  of  the  thought.' 

By  Aristotle  the  material  cause  was  termed  the  raw 
material,  the  underlying  thing;  the  formal  cause,  the 
true  nature  of  the  thing;  the  efficient  cause,  that  whence 
the  beginning  of  motion  is;  the  final  cause,  that  on 
account  of  which  a  thing  is. 

In  Everett's  Science  of  Thought  it  is  said  "Where  a 
process  is  carried  on  by  means  of  parts  co-operating  for 
their  own  mutual  support,  or  for  the  promotion  of  a 
common  end,  this  composition  of  parts  is  called  an  or- 
ganism and  the  end  for  which  they  co-operate  is  called 
a  final  cause.  The  cause,  although  it  no  longer  exists  as 
cause,  is  fulfilled  in  the  effect.  The  end  is  more  really 
the  cause  than  the  beginning,  for,  in  the  end,  the  cause 
finds  first  its  real  and  complete  existence.  The  end  for 
which  all  the  parts  of  an  organism  work  together — 
termed  the  final  cause — is  really  the  cause  of  the  organ- 
ism. If  one  goes  to  a  city  his  object  in  going  is  the  cause 
of  his  movement  rather  than  the  locomotive  that  took 
him  there.  A  seed  is  buried  in  the  earth.  The  warmth 
and  moisture  make  it  sprout  into  life ;  yet  if  it  had  not 
this  tendency  to  life,  this  final  cause  embodied  in  itself? 
the  sun  and  moisture  would  have  been  in  vain.  The 
final  cause  of  the  seed  is  to  produce  the  plant.     Its  ex- 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE  SCHOOL.  57 

istence  is  fulfilled  in  that.  The  final  cause  is  the  real 
cause.  The  great  difl&culty  in  regard  to  final  causes  is 
that  they  are  always  mingled  with  working  or  efficient 
causes.  A  final  cause  has  no  objective  existence  except 
in  its  result,  and  this  result  has  been  produced  directly 
by  efficient  causes,  while  it — the  final  cause — has  only 
been  working  invisibly  behind  and  through  these.  In 
all  actions  that  are  the  result  of  mind  or  intelligence, 
there  must  be  final  cause  ;  for  intelligence  is  the  acting 
for  a  final  cause,  and  hence  every  intelligent  act  must 
have  a  final  cause."  In  nature,  in  life,  in  history,  in  all 
organisms,  in  the  school,  in  the  recitation,  in  the  study 
and  behavior  of  the  pupils,  final  cause  is  hidden  and  at 
work.  It  is  the  essence  of  the  school,  of  the  prepara- 
tion for  school  work,  of  the  recitation,  and  of  the  whole 
subject  of  the  children's  actions,  and  of  discipline.  The 
real  teacher  always  seeks  for,  and  is  able  to  recognize  its 
presence. 

The  aim  of  education  in  its  limitation  to  the  period  of 
preparation — the  period  of  family  and  school  influence — 
is  to  assist  the  child  toward  the  final  cause  of  his  exist- 
ence, not  by  giving  him  knowledge  merely  or  mainly, 
but  mainly  by  sending  him  forth  equipped  with  the 
desire  and  the  power  to  attain  knowledge.  The  aim  of 
education  in  its  full  sense,  i.  e.,  through  the  instrumen- 
talities of  the  family,  school,  church,  business  society 
and  state — including  both  the  period  of  preparation  and 
that  of  use  or  action  is  to  confer  upon  each  individual 
truth-freedom,  reason-freedom,  rational-freedom.  The 
stages  in  the  process  are : 


58  THE  THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 


1.  Presentation  of  material  for  the  mind's  action. 

2.  Action  of   the  mind   upon  the  material,  and 

consequent  acquisition  of  knowledge. 

3.  Mental  strength  and  skill,  intellectual,  emotion- 

al and  volitional,  arising   from  such  action, 
and  the  assimilation  of  knowledge. 

4.  A  partial  insight,  arising  from  the  strength  and 

skill,  into  that  knowledge  which  is  of  most 
value. 
6.  A  desire  to  enter  into  possession  of  the  knowl- 
edge thus  opened  to  the  mind. 

6.  In   the    high    school,     mental   discipline  and 

knowledge  become  substantially  co-ordinate 
aims. 

7.  In  the  college,  the  mastery  of  the  sciences  and 
the  liberal  arts,  i.  e.,  knowledge,  becomes  the  main 
aim,  with  mental  discipline  as  the  necessary  at- 
tendant. 

8.  In  the  professional  schools  of  universities,  and 
in  technical  schools,  the  mastery  of  knowledge  and 
the  acquiring  of  skill  necessary  to  special  vocations. 

9.  The  unconscious  or  unsystematic  acquiring  of 

knowledge  in  the  various  spheres  of  life. 

10.  The  assimilation   and    employment    of   this 
knowledge. 

11.  The  perception  of  the  truth,  growing  out  of 

all  the  foregoing. 

12.  The  truth-freedom  resulting — "Ye  shall  know 
the  truth,  and  the  truth  shall  make  you  free." 


§ 


RATIONAL  OR  TRUTH-FREEDOM. 

Freedom  is,  in  essence,  obedience.     True  freedom  is 
obedience  to  natural  law,  whether  physical  or  spiritual ; 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  59 

but  all  freedom,  whether  true  or  not,  is  obedience — obe- 
dience to  something. 

Freedom  is  of  two  kinds,  as  is  bondage — physical  and 
spiritual.  True  physical  freedom  is  that  in  which  the 
body  is,  through  a  training  into  a  condition  of  uncon- 
scious habit,  of  second  nature,  instantly,  as  occasion  re- 
quires, obedient  to  all  its  physical  laws.  Real  physical 
freedom  requires  that  the  obedience  shall  be  uncon- 
scious, automatic.  Spiritual  freedom  is  likewise  of  two 
kinds : 

1.  Caprice-freedoUy  or  obedience  to  caprice,  prejudice, 
ignorance,  i.e.,  bondage. 

2.  Rational  freedom^  or  obedience  to  truth,  i.e.,  to 
knowledge,  to  reason,  to  the  feeling  "I  ought." 

The  first  is  the  freedom  of  a  Henry  VIII.,  of  an  Eliza- 
beth, of  a  Trinculo  and  of  a  Caliban.  In  such  freedom, 
which  in  truth  is  the  veriest  slavery,  the  baseness  of  the 
master  makes  the  servant  baser  still,  and  Trinculo  gives 
Caliban  wine,  and  Caliban  thinks  him  a  god,  and  that 
he  has  entered  into  freedom.  There  is  no  hope  of  real 
advancement  in  such  a  state  of  things;  rebellion  against 
the  true  master  is  a  necessary  consequence ;  he  must  be 
got  rid  of,  or  Trinculo  and  Caliban  can  not  rule. 

It  is  a  spectacle  of  caprice-freedom  to  see,  in  any 
phase  of  life,  the  Trinculos  and  Calibans  conspiring 
against  the  true  lord  of  the  island — reason,  truth,  the 
"I  ought." 

Rational  freedom  is  the  habitual  joint  right  action  of 
the  intellect,  sensibility  and  will.  The  will  in  one  sense 
is  not  free ;  in  another  sense  it  is  absolutely  free.    It  is 


60  THE   THEORY   OP  THE   SCHOOL. 

not  free  in  the  sense  that  it  can  not  avoid  choosing.  It 
is  its  very  nature  and  essence,  however,  to  choose ;  and 
it  fulfills  the  function  of  its  being  in  choosing.  The 
proper  conditions  being  supplied,  the  will  must,  of 
necessity,  choose.  Yet  it  is  free  in  that  it  has  absolute 
power  in  its  choosing.  If  its  choice  is  in  accordance 
with  reason,  it  is  rationally  free.  ^ 

If  the  choosing  of  any  given  individual  is  habitually 
in  accordance  with  the  principles  of  justice — each  shall 
render  an  equivalent  for  that  which  he  receives — uni- 
versal brotherhood — mutual  love — he  is  a  rationally  free 
member  of  the  social  system.  But  each  of  these  princi- 
ples is,  in  essence,  love  or  kindness,  and  if  one,  in  all 
circumstances,  acts  in  obedience  to  this,  the  highest  ele- 
ment of  his  emotional  nature — the  one  that  links  him 
most  closely  to  the  Divine — for  God  is  in  form  or  essence 
love — he  is  rationally  free. 

The  thought  that  all  other  principles  have  their  root 
in  this  one — love  or  kindness — and  that  therefore,  the 
nobler  elements  of  man's  emotional  nature  are  really  the 
man  is  clearly  seen  in  this : 

"The  night  has  a  thousand  eyes, 

The  day  but  one ; 

So  the  light  of  the  whole  day  dies 

At  set  of  sun. 

The  mind  has  a  thousand  eyes, 

The  heart  but  one ; 

So  the  light  of  the  whole  life  dies 

When  love  is  done." 

The  transcendent  thought  for  the  teacher  is  that  when 
force,  fear,  or  any  alien  power  has  driven  the  child's 
higher  nature  into  its  inacessible  retreats,  the  eyes  of 


THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  61 

the  intellect  are  made  less  acute,  just  as  the  stars — the 
eyes  of  the  night — would  lose  their  silvery  luster  if  the 
sun  were  no  more. 

The  aim  of  education,  then,  is  heart-education.  It  is 
habitual  obedience  to  the  higher  elements  of  man's 
emotional  nature ;  obedience  to  the  'ought' 

The  first  recorded  instance  of  caprice-freedom,  was 
the  choosing  of  knowledge  by  the  first  man,  in  the  Gar- 
den of  Eden.  This  following  of  the  'I  want'  instead  of 
the  'I  ought' — the  exaltation  of  knowledge  and  intel- 
lectual power  over  obedience  to  the  principle  of  love — 
constituted  the  Fall  of  Man.  In  like  manner  the  exalt- 
ation of  dogmatism  and  verbalism  over  the  essence  and 
reality  of  things  constituted  the  fall  of  education,  and 
demanded  and  required  in  the  fourteenth  century  'The 
Revival  of  Letters.'  And  just  as  Henry  V.  thought  the 
defection  of  Lord  Scroop  to  be  like  unto  a  second  fall  of 
man,  so  by  many  it  is  held  that  there  has  been  a  second 
fall  of  education,  since  in  its  period  of  preparation — the 
period  of  the  family  and  the  school,  especially  the  latter 
— it   seems  to  exalt  mere   form,  words,  definitions — a 

hardened    crust  of    verbalism over  the  reality,   the 

thought;  since  it  seems  to  make,  as  the  end  of  the  school, 
preparation  for  business  in  the  sense  in  which  Scrooge 
used  the  term,  rather  than  that  in  which  the  Ghost  used 
it;  since  the  goal  appears  to  be  facts,  knowledge,  per- 
cents,  or  at  best  intellectual  power,  rather  than  habitual 
obedience  to  the  higher  emotional  nature — character- 
power.  If  intellectual  power  were  the  true  aim  of  edu- 
cation, there  could  be  but  slight  objection  to  Mephisto- 


62  THE   THEORY  OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

pheles,  or  to  Faust  in  his  early  career.  (It  is  evident 
from  the  illustrations  that  the  terms  intellect  and  intel- 
lectual power,  are  employed  in  a  limited  sense — the  rational 
phase  falling,  substantially,  outside  the  terms.)  The  real 
aim  of  education  is  to  restore  man  by  dethroning  intel- 
lectual power  and  knowledge,  and  by  enthroning  man's 
real  being — his  emotional  and  volitional  powers.  The 
true  end  is  to  relegate  facts  to  their  proper  sphere — that 
of  materials  mainly,  and  intellect  to  its  proper  station, 
that  of  a  servant  or  instrument — the  highest  instrument 
it  is  true — and  to  make  character-power,  the  power  of 
"having  withstood  all,  to  stand,"  the  goal.  The  final 
cause  of  education,  then,  is  rational  freedom. 

Rational  freedom  unites  the  powers  of  habit,  rational 
intelligence  and  sensibility.  Taken  singly,  the  cultiva- 
tion of  neither  of  these  powers  gives  rational  freedom. 
The  exclusive  development  of  either  one  leads  from  it. 

Thus  intellectual  power  in  the  limited  sense,  is  not 
rational  h-eedom  though  it  is  involved  in  it.  The  keenest 
intellectual  power,  as  above  indicated,  may  exist  side 
by  side  with  caprice.  The  cultivation  of  the  mere  in- 
tellect may  lead  one  to  think  that  that  is  the  one  thing 
needful,  and  that  his  actions  are  not  concerned,  and 
that  therefore,  their  character  is  a  thing  indifferent;  this 
forms  the  habit  of  not  obeying  what  he  knows  to  be  the 
truth,  hence  he  is  not  truth-free. 

The  training  of  the  will  alone  is  not  rational  freedom, 
though  that  is  in  it.  Habit,  without  knowledge  and 
conscious  motive,  is  the  characteristic,  not  of  a  rational 
being,  but  of  a  machine ;  acts  performed  under  its  in- 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  63 

fluence  have  no  moral  character,  whether  their  results 
are  in  accordance  with  morality  or  not.  This  seeming 
habit  of  morality  cannot  be  permanent  and  sufficient. 
The  routine  conduct  to  which  it  leads  may  endure  for  a 
while,  as  long  as  circumstances  do  not  interfere  with 
obedience  to  the  habit ;  but  it  will  never  stand  against 
the  rush  of  personal  prejudices  and  interests,  when  these 
clamor,  as  they  inevitably  will,  for  a  hearing.  There  is 
wanted  intelligence  to  give  such  acts  a  moral  character, 
and  motive  to  secure  their  performance  against  all  op- 
posing tendencies. 

The  sensibilities  alone  will  not  give  rational  freedom. 
Apart  from  habit,  the  performance  of  actions  must 
always  be  difficult,  and  uncertain ;  while  there  is  also 
needed  the  intelligence  to  prevent  good  motives  from 
being  blind  guides. 

The  process  in  rational  freedom  is : 

1.  The  perception  of  that  which  is  fit  or  right  in 
human  action.     (Intellect.) 

2.  The  arising  of  the  feeling  'I  ought.*      (Feeling.) 

3.  The  determination  to  obey  the  feeling  'I  ought.' 
(Will.) 

4.  The  resulting  action,  mental  or  physical.    (Prac- 
tical.) 

This  is  obedience  to  the  true  self,  hence  it  is  freedom. 
True  obedience  to  another  person  or  to  an  institution  of 
which  one  is  a  member,  is  choosing  the  same  end  as  that 
other  person,  or  as  the  institution.  Such  obedience  is 
freedom.  No  one  can  be  forced  to  act  in  a  certain  way, 
or  to  choose  a  given  purpose;  each  one  chooses  his  own 


64  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

purpose ;  hence,  the  third  point  indicated  above  is  the 
element  of  freedom.  Every  one  has  freedom,  in  the 
sense  that  he  is  free  to  make  either  the  choice  that  he 
does  or  some  other  one.  The  free  spirit  cannot  be  en- 
chained. Man  acts  in  freedom.  If  he  obeys  the  'ought' 
he  acts  rationally,  and  hence  has  rational  freedom. 

"Rational  freedom  is  that  state  in  which  one  is  when 
he  does  right,  or  acts  in  obedience  to  the  'ought';  for 
this  alone  is  the  dictate  of  the  reason.  In  this  state  the 
intellect  discerns  the  true,  the  sensibility  feels  the  beau- 
tiful, and  the  will  chooses  the  good ;  hence,  there  is  a 
blending  of  the  true,  the  beautiful,  and  the  good  in  the 
character."  Character-power  of  this  kind  is  the  true  aim 
of  education.  That  is,  the  aim  and  scope  of  that  civil- 
izing process  through  which  the  child  passes  in  his  con- 
tact with  the  family,  school,  church,  business  society, 
and  state,  is  the  attainment  of  rational  freedom.  But 
the  very  term  freedom,  in  this  connection,  presupposes  a 
previous  bondage.  Bondage  to  what  ?  In  the  conversa- 
tion of  the  descendants  of  Abraham  with  Christ,  they 
referred  it  to  the  physical  power  of  the  ruling  body.  In 
that  conversation,  they,  however,  catch  a  gleam  of  a 
new  doctrine — that  imperfect  humanity  is  in  bondage 
to  itself,  to  its  own  belief,  ignorance,  and  prejudice. 

The  true  aim  and  effect  of  the  social  system— family, 
school,  church,  business  society,  and  state — is  the  deliv- 
erance from  that  bondage.  This  is  the  removal  of  the 
antithesis  that  exists  between  the  objective  and  the  sub- 
jective, by  merging  the  external  to  any  one  into  his  sub- 
jective.    In  the  lower  stages  of  civilization  the  moral 


THE  THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  65 

and  political  restrictions  of  the  family,  school,  church, 
business,  and  state,  are  looked  upon  as  objectively  de- 
termined ;  the  social  system  being  viewed  as  something 
into  which  one  is  born,  but  which  is  subjectively  differ- 
ent from  that  one.  In  such  a  state  "the  individual  feels 
himself  bound  to  comply  with  requirements  of  whose 
justice  or  propriety  he  is  not  allowed  to  judge,  though 
they  often  severely  test  his  endurance,  and  even  demand 
the  sacrifice  of  his  life.*'  In  a  state  of  higher  civiliza- 
tion, though  an  equal  sacrifice  be  demanded,  the  indi- 
vidual feels  that  the  institutions  are  just  and  desirable, 
and  that  the  laws  and  restrictions  are  at  one  with  his 
own  subjective  nature,  and  such  as  his  own  rational 
choosinsj  would  have  produced.  This  is  the  harmoniza- 
tion of  the  objective  and  the  subjective.  The  true  aim 
of  education  in  the  stage  of  preparation  is  to  harmonize 
the  subjective  of  each  individual  in  the  family  and  the 
school  with  the  objective,  in  order  to  fit  him  for  a  like 
harmony  in  the  church,  business,  and  state.  This  would 
remove,  among  other  things,  the  ground  for  the  Chinese 
traveller's  statement. 

MIND  A  UNIVERSAL  SUBSTRA  TE 

The  first  part  of  the  word  nature — not — is  the  same  as 
the  first  part  of  the  words  natal  and  native,  and  means 
bom.  The  last  part,  ure,  is  from  the  I^atin  ura,  meaning 
to  be  or  necessary  to  be.  In  its  original  sense,  therefore, 
the  word  nature  signifies  that  which  is  to  be  born. 

That  is,  nature  is  in  essence  energy,  and  that  which 
outwardly  appears  is  merely  a  manifestation,  the  sub- 


66  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

stratum  of  which  is  life,  spirit,  mind.  But  mind  is  an 
energy  of  three-fold  variety — intellect,  sensibility,  and 
will.  Nature,  then,  is  at  heart  intellect,  sensibility  and 
will,  and  for  a  human  being  to  comprehend  nature  in 
whole  or  in  part,  is  for  him  to  transmute  it  into  thought. 
The  true  standpoint  is  that  whatever  God  has  put  forth 
in  audible  or  visible  form  is  in  truth  God  himself  to  a 
degree,  and  for  an  individual  to  comprehend,  to  really 
know  any  such  form  means  that  the  intellect,  sensibility, 
and  will  of  God,  which  to  a  degree  lies  concealed  in  it, 
is  to  come  forth  and  touch  the  mind  of  the  learner,  and 
coalesce  with  it,  and  in  a  manner  lift  the  mind  of  the 
learner  up  to  itself. 

This  passing  of  the  divine  life  into  the  human  life  is 
the  education  that  nature  affords.  God  thought  a 
thought,  and  made  that  thought  manifest  in  visible 
form.  That  visible  form  is  called  North  America. 
What,  then,  in  reality  is  North  America  but  thought — a 
thought  of  God?  What  is  the  lily  of  the  valley  but  the 
life  of  the  Divine  Being  made  manifest  to  a  degree? 
Such,  indeed,  they  are,  and  such  also,  is  each  bird  of 
of  the  air,  and  beast  of  the  field.  Christ,  while  on  earth, 
was  God  manifest  in  the  flesh  :  in  like  manner  God  has 
manifested  Himself  in  the  visible  forms  of  nature. 
Nature  is  in  essence  a  thought  of  God.  Hence  the 
meaning — about  to  be  bom ;  for  the  mind  of  God,  which, 
to  a  degree,  is  ensconced  in  every  form  of  nature,  is  about 
to  come  forth  and  touch  the  mind  of  the  true  learner,  and 
transform  it.  But  to  whom  does  it  come  forth  ?  Only 
to  the  one  who  has  the  power  to  break  the  spell.     Only 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  67 

to  the  true  prince — the  one  whose  spirit  is  in  harmony 
with  the  life,  the  thought  concealed. 

The  child  himself  is  a  thought  of  God.  Each  human 
being  is  the  intellect,  sensibility,  and  will  of  God 
shadowed  forth  imperfectly  and  faintly.  In  order  then 
that  the  teacher  may  assist  in  the  education  of  the  child, 
he  must  be  able  to  think  the  child,  i.  e.,  to  comprehend 
the  life,  the  embodied  mind  to  that  degree  which  will 
enable  him  to  call  forth  the  mind  of  the  child  and  cause 
it  to  touch  the  thought  that  lies  hidden  in  his  own  (the 
teacher's)  expressions,  and  in  the  object  of  study ;  for 
example,  the  llama,  or  the  heliotrope.  But  to  whom 
does  the  child-mind  thus  come  forth  ?  Only  to  the  true 
prince,  the  one  whose  spirit  is  in  harmony  with  it,  and 
who  has  therefore,  the  power  to  reach  it  in  its  otherwise 
inaccessible  retreats. 

Again,  art  is  the  intellect,  sensibility,  and  will  of  man, 
manifest  in  merely  another  form ;  poetry,  prose,  paint- 
ing, architecture,  music,  sculpture,  and  all  done  by 
man,  are  embodiments  of  certain  portions  of  man's  life 
set  in  action.  Whenever  a  man  does  anything,  he  puts 
forth  a  part  of  himself,  of  his  mind,  and  if  it  is  under- 
stood it  must  be  re-transmuted  into  that. 

And  these  mind-creations  are  naturally  subject  to  the 
same  conditions  as  the  life  of  which  they  are  the  out- 
come, and,  as  far  as  they  go,  represent  it  as  faithfully  as 
if  they  were  separate  living  beings.  Spiritually  there  is 
one  Bartholdi;  externally  there  are  two  (really  many) — 
one,  full-orbed,  in  which  the  life  or  mind  is  most  free, 
most  self-determining,  lives,  moves  and  has  its  being  in 


68  THE  THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

Paris;  the  other,  partial,  in  majestic  iron  and  copper 
stands  on  Bedloe's  Island  and  is  called  Liberty  Enlight- 
ening the  World. 

The  one  who  is  to  really  know  the  Bartholdi  statue 
must  transmute  it  into  thought.  If  the  learner  is  of 
kindred  spirit,  the  three-fold  mind  of  the  artist  that  is 
embodied  in  the  statue  will  touch  his  mind  and  it  will 
be  as  it  was  no  more,  for  at  the  touch  of  kindred  spirit 
the  inventive  genius  that  lies  hidden  in  the  statue  will 
awake  and  live  again  in  the  life  of  the  learner,  and  to 
some  extent,  depending  upon  his  native  endowments,* 
he  is  evermore  a  Bartholdi.  So  everything  that  divine 
or  human  artist  has  produced,  a  chair,  a  pencil,  a  table, 
a  house,  the  wren,  the  rose.  Mount  Blanc,  Evangeline 
or  Hamlet — is  in  its  reality,  mind  or  thought,  and  if  thus 
contemplated  and  reached,  becomes  a  living  crucible, 
an  educating  force.  But  otherwise  it  is  a  mere  dead 
form. 

Everett  says,  "When  it  is  said  that  all  being  is  ob- 
jective thought,  it  is  meant  that  all  being  exists  to  the 
infinite  mind  as  thought,  and  that  all  being  may  exist 
to  any  mind  as  thought,  so  far  as  that  mind  is  develop- 
ed enough  to  grasp  it ;  the  limit  in  every  case  being  not 
the  nature  of  the  outward  object,  but  the  capacity  of 
the  mind  itself." 

All  being  is  animate  with  enchanted  life  for  all  who 
have  the  power  to  break  the  spell. 

The  true  aim  of  education  is  to  assist  the  child  to  the 
power  of  viewing  all  being  as  thought ;  of  reading  the 
high  and  varied  emotions  of  noble  minds,  and  thereby 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  69 

kindling  high  and  varied  power  in  himself.     For  then 
only  is  he  educated. 

INSTRUMENTAL  AND  CHARACTER  POWER. 

In  the  Louvre,  at  Paris,  is  a  renowned  statue  of  a 
slave.  The  attitude  and  proportions  proclaim  the  artist, 
and  the  resignation  and  intelligence  depicted  in  the  face 
are  striking.  Yet  all  who  have  beheld  it  and  studied  it 
agree  that  the  finest  touch  (it  being  the  statue  of  a 
slave)  is  the  absence  from  the  face  and  bearing  of  that 
finer,  subtler  something  which  always  indicates  the  real 
man.  It  stands  there  the  embodiment  of  a  perfect  ani- 
mated machine.  Mechanical  power  of  a  high  order  is 
evident  in  it,  but  it  is  clear  that  the  lash,  or  the  will  of 
the  master,  has  driven  into  exile  those  higher  feelings 
which  constitute  the  real  being,  and  which  always  enter 
into  man's  true  work.  It  is  an  illustration  of  a  hard 
mechanic  power  of  mind  and  body  when  the  real  being 
has  retired  at  the  presence  of  alien  feeling,  or  compulsive 
force. 

There  lies  within  every  child  and  in  every  work  of 
man,  in  addition  to  its  mechanical  side,  a  finer  nature 
which  is  the  true  being,  and  which,  viewed  as  power, 
may  be  called  character-power.  The  mechanical  side 
exists  for  this^  and  may  therefore  be  termed  instrumen- 
tal power.  In  education,  the  character  elemdnt  in  the 
child,  or  in  man's  work,  must  be  reached.  But  the 
slave  owner  might  as  well  try  to  call  forth  the  finer 
nature  with  his  lash  as  for  the  mere  intellect  to  expect  to 
win  its  way  by  force  into  the  heart  of  visible  thought. 


70  THE  THEORY   OP  THE  SCHOOL. 

^Both  deal,  and  deal  successfully,  if  strong  enough, 
with  the  husk,  the  mere  mechanical  side  of  that  which 
they  approach;  both  fail,  if  not  strong,  even  in  that; 
and  both  stand  forever  outside  the  walls  of  the  home  in 
which  true  power  and  beauty  dwell.  Education  is  not 
concerned  with  the  external  except  as  an  instrument; 
as  an  end  it  is  concerned  with  the  life,  the  character- 
power.  Should  this  be  granted,  it  becomes  clear  that 
all  work  which  deals  with  the  externals,  as,  words  and 
their  pronunciation  in  reading  as  an  end;  rules,  defini- 
tions, and  technical  terms  in  language  as  an  end ;  fig- 
ures, and  rules  for  manipulating  them,  in  number,  as 
an  end,  fails  to  fulfill  the  demands  of  higher  training; 
and,  also,  that  all  hard,  unfeeling,  irreverent  temper, 
unfits  both  the  teacher  and  the  pupil,  however  strong  in 
intellect  they  may  be,  for  the  higher  ranges  of  power, 
which  can  only  be  attained  by  giving  and  taking  the 
thrill  of  true  feeling,  and  by  an  endeavor  to  enter  into 
communion  with  each  other,  and  with  the  life  embodied 
in  the  thing  studied.  This  conception  of  power  as  two- 
fold— mechanical  power  and  living  power — manifesta- 
tions of  the  child's  being,  both  contained  always  in 
greater  or  less  degree,  balanced  or  unbalanced  within 
him,  establishes  the  first  principle  of  true  education.  It 
forms  the  basis  of  educational  science.  One  consequence 
appears  at  once — that  child-life  can  only  be  trained  to 
its  highest  perfection  hy  contact  with  life  and  thought^  or 
by  processes  of  life;  and  hence,  however  useful  or  neces- 
sary certain  forms  of  skill,  and  certain  branches  of 
knowledge  are,  they  do  not  belong  to  the  teaching  and 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  71 

training  of  the  higher  life,  except  in  a  subordinate  de- 
gree, because  of  the  absence  of  the  very  elements  of  the 
higher  life  in  them.'  * 

Test  the  common  school  branches  by  this  thought. 

*'  The  aim  of  education  is  not  to  prepare  for  life  in  any 
technical  sense,  but  to  raise  the  standard  of  life  itself." 
Locally  it  is  to  remove  the  ground  for  the  Chinese 
traveller's  answer.  The  necessity  for  the  removal  is  evi- 
denced in  that  the  press  of  the  country  recently  set  forth 
as  remarkable  the  fact  that  a  business  man  having  failed 
some  years  since,  and  having  paid  at  the  time  fifty  cents 
on  the  dollar,  had  just  completed  the  payment  in  full, 
though  not  compelled  by  law  to  do  so.  In  the  record, 
moreover,  the  press  unconsciously  gave  testimony  to  the 
popular  sentiment  that  such  payment  was  optional,  and 
therefore  notably  honorable.  But  it  was  not  optional — 
man's  higher  nature  compelling  it,  the  man  simply  per- 
forming his  bounden  duty  in  compliance  with  the  plain 
business  principle — "  Every  one  shall  render  an  equiva- 
lent for  that  which  he  receives." 

Bodily  strength  is  a  very  great  power,  but  to  live  for 
the  body  only  is  to  be  a  mere  animal.  Intellectual 
strength,  also,  is  a  very  great  power,  but  to  live  for  the 
intellect  only  is  to  be  a  Mephistopheles. 

Both  these  powers  are  necessary  and  must  be  culti- 
vated, but  as  instruments,  not  as  supreme.  However 
much  the  intellect  may  have  usurped  the  throne,  it  may 
nevertheless  be  united  with  the  most  destructive,  or  the 
meanest  qualities.     Intellectual  power  has  no  necessary 

♦  E,  Thring. 


72  THE   THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

connection  with  good  (except  as  indicated  in  "a"  and 
"6"  under  the  second  "2"  following). 

There  is  an  adage  that  "Whatever  you  would  put 
into  the  life  of  a  nation,  you  must  first  put  into  the 
schools."  The  experiment  is  yet  to  be  faithfully  tried 
in  the  schools,  whether  they  can  so  train  to  true  life  as 
to  keep  the  nation  from  falling,  and  maintain  it  in  its 
true  rank;  whether  by  their  work  they  can  insure  that 
the  nation  shall  seek  after  true  life,  rather  than  mere 
knowledge  and  material  prosperity;  that  it  shall  rightly 
use  the  two  servants  of  the  real  being — bodily  and  intel- 
lectual strength.  The  danger  to  the  nation  is  correctly 
fore-shadowed  in  "The  Message  of  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury to  the  Twentieth,"  by  Ex-President  White,  of 
Cornell. 

It  is  self-evident  that  any  truth  belonging  to  man  as 
man,  must  belong  to  every  individual,  and  that  no  truth 
belongs  to  man  as  man  that  is  limited  to  a  small  num- 
ber. This  must  hold  good  whether  by  truth  is  meant 
means  or  end.  The  universal  is  synonomous  with  truth 
pertaining  to  man  and  man's  nature.  All  men  must  be 
able  to  attain  the  end  of  existence,  if  there  is  an  end  of 
existence  for  man ;  that  is,  the  end  must  be  universal. 
All  pupils  must  be  able  to  reach  the  aim  of  school  edu- 
cation if,  as  is  held,  there  is  a  universal  aim.  Extensive 
hi(ywledge  can  never  he  the  possession  of  every  individual; 
excellent  power  of  doing  skilled  work,  and  true  feeling  as  a 
motive  power,  can.  The  nature  of  things  makes  the  ex- 
tremes of  perfect  training,  and  of  producible  knowledge, 
to  a  certain  degree  antagonistic ;  i.  e.,  the  time  spent  in 


THE   THEORY   OP   THE  SCHOOL.  73 

questioning  with  a  view  to  train,  can  not  be  employed 
in  pouring  in  knowledge  with  a  view  to  turn  it  out  again 
on  demand.  The  importance  of  this  distinction  is  not 
seen,  however,  in  the  best  pupils.  They  succeed  to  a 
creditable  degree  under  either  system.  What  results  to 
the  average,  or  to  the  poor  pupil,  is  the  real  question. 
With  them,  the  vain  attempt  to  get  a  certain  amount  of 
knowledge  results  in  emptiness,  and  a  stolid  unbelief  in 
education.  The  attempt  to  get  training  results  in  the 
native  strength  being  improved,  as  far  as  it  is  capable  of 
improvement,  and  in  as  much  skill  being  acquired  as 
the  case  admits  of.  The  first  ends  in  a  diseased  state  of 
mind  ;  the  second  in  a  healthy  condition  however  weak 
it  may  be. 

The  true  aim  of   education,  especially    during    the 
period  of  preparation,  is  therefore  three-fold  : 

1.  To  train  the  character-power;  that  is,  '^to  set  the 
loving  and  the  hating  on  the  right  track." 

2.  To  train  the  intellect  (subordinate)  and  the  body 
(more  subordinate);  i.e.,  the  instrumental  powers. 

3.  To  obtain  knowledge  ;  primarily  as  the  material 
for  thought,  and  secondarily  for  future  application. 

The  relation  of  the  intellect  and  the  character-power 
is: 

1.  Oppositional,  in  that  the  highest  intellectual 
activity  at  any  given  moment,  excludes  the  highest 
emotional  activity  at  that  given  moment,  and  vice  versa^ 
in  accordance  with  the  principle  that  the  mind  has  but 
a  given  quantum  of  energy. 

2.  Supplementary : 


74  THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

a.  Whatever  increases  one's  knowledge  of  things 
as  they  are,  leads  to  an  appreciation  of  truth. 

6.  Increase  of  mental  power  increases  the  power, 
to  judge  on  moral  questions. 

c.  When  the  will,  affections  and  conscience  are 
cultivated  with  a  view  to  independent  action,  the  intel- 

>^lect  must  be  cultivated  so  as  to  impose  proper  limits 
upon  that  independence. 

d.  In  proportion  as  the  intellect  is  cultiyated,  the 
sensibilities  and  will — the  real  being — must  be  trained 
to  carry  its  judgments  into  effect. 

The  truth  of  "c"  and  "d,"  as  given  at  the  beginning 
of  the  chapter,  is  made  evident  in  the  consideration  of 
instrumental  and  character-power. 

Consider  the  aim  of  education  as  above  presented,  in  the 
light  of  the  following,  and  weigh  these  by  that : 

"Man  is  the  last,  the  most  complete,  and  the  most  excellent 
of  living  creatures. 

The  final  end  of  man  lies  beyond  this  Mfe.  This  life  is  three- 
fold, viz :  Vegetative,  Animal,  and  Intellectual  or  Spiritual. 
The  first  nowhere  manifests  itself  outside  the  body  ;  the  second 
stretches  forth  to  objects  through  the  operations  of  the  senses  ; 
the  third  is  able  to  exist  separately  as  well  as  in  the  body,  as  in 
the  case  of  angels. 

This  life  is  only  a  preparation  for  an  eternal  life.  The  visible 
world  is  only  a  seed-plot,  a  boarding-house  and  training-school 
for  man. 

There  are  three  steps  of  preparation  for  Eternity.  'Se,  et 
secum  omnia,  nosse  ;  regere  ;  et  ad  Deum  dirigere.' 

It  is  accordingly  required  of  man  that — 
He  should  know  all  things. 
He  should  have  power  over  all  things,  and  over  himself. 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  75 

He  should  refer  himself  and  all  things  to  God  the  Source 
of  All. 

These  requirements  are  summed  up  in  the  words  Eruditio, 
Virtus,  seu  Mores  Honesti,  Eeligio,  seu  Pietas, — Knowledge,  Virtue 
and  Piety.     All  else  is  merely  accidental  and  extrinsic. 

The  seeds  of  these  three  are  in  us  by  Nature,  i.e.,  our  first 
original  and  fundamental  nature,  to  which  we  are  to  be  recalled 
by  God  in  Christ. 

It  is  as  certain  that  man  has  been  born  fit  for  the  understand- 
ing of  things,  the  harmony  of  morals,  and  the  love  of  God,  as 
that  there  are  roots  to  a  tree."— Comknius. 

"In  the  natural  order  of  things,  all  men  being  equal  the 
vocation  common  to  all  is  the  state  of  manhood,  and  whoever 
is  well  trained  for  that,  cannot  fulfill  badly  any  vocation  which 
depends  upon  it.  Whether  my  pupil  be  destined  for  the  army, 
the  church,  or  the  bar,  matters  little  to  me.  Before  he  can 
think  of  adopting  the  vocation  of  his  parents,  nature  calls  upon 
him  to  be  a  man.  How  to  live  is  the  business  I  wish  to  teach 
him.  On  leaving  my  hands  he  will  not,  I  admit,  be  a  magis- 
trate, a  soldier,  or  a  priest ;  first  of  all  he  will  be  a  man.  All 
that  a  man  ought  to  be,  he  can  be,  at  need,  as  well  as  anyone 
else  can.  Fortune  will  in  vain  alter  his  position,  for  he  will 
always  occupy  his  own."— Rousseau. 

"Elementary  education,  in  his  view,  means,  not  definite  in- 
struction in  special  subjects,  but  the  eliciting  of  the  powers 
OP  the  child  as  preparative  to  definite  instruction — it 
means  that  course  of  cultivation  which  the  mind  of  every  child 
ought  to  go  through,  in  order  to  secure  the  all-sided  develop- 
ment of  its  powers." — Payne's  Festalozzi. 

"Education  has  for  its  chief  object  moral  culture,  the  forma- 
tion of  character  ;  and  for  this  end  it  is  above  all  necessary 
that  there  should  be  freedom  of  individual  movement,  room 
for  the  development  of  personality."— Froebel. 


76  THE   THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

"What  the  education  is  that  will  best  enable  a  man  to  edu- 
cate himself,  ought  surely  to  be  the  paramount  inquiry.  Is  it 
Instruction,  or  is  it  Training,  or  is  it  both  ? 

Is  it  the  amount  of  elementary  knowledge  communicated,  or 
is  it  that  exercise  of  mind  by  which  the  pupil  acquires  the 
power  of  educating  himself?  Till  within  the  last  few  years,  the 
term  used  to  define  Education  was  Instruction.  Give  elemen- 
tary and  religious  instruction,  it  was  and  is  still  said,  and  this 
will  be  sufficient.  Teach  the  poor  to  read  the  Bible,  and  forth- 
with you  will  make  them  good,  holy,  and  happy  citizens — kind 
parents,  obedient  children,  compassionate  and  honorable  in 
their  dealings  ;  and  crime  will  diminish.  Hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  our  population  have  received  such  an  education.  Are 
such  the  results  ?  Have  our  political  advocates  for  educating 
the  poor — has  the  public  hit  upon  the  right  kind  of  education, 
or  upon  the  proper  mode  of  communication  f  Can  teaching  or  in- 
struction alone  produce  the  results  which  are  so  fondly  antici- 
pated? 

Can  all  the  telling,  or  teaching,  or  instruction  in  the  world 
enable  a  man  to  make  a  shoe,  construct  an  engine,  ride,  write, 
or  paint,  without  training,  that  is,  without  doing  f  Can  the  mere 
head-knowledge  of  religious  truths  make  a  man  good  without  the 
practice  of  it,  without  the  training  of  the  aff'ections  and  moral 
habits  ?  Will  teaching  to  read,  write  and  cast  accounts,  with  a 
little  knowledge  of  geography  and  grammar,  cultivate  the  child 
— the  whole  man  f 

Is  this  process  of  mere  head-knowledge  likely  to  up-root  self- 
ishness, pride  and  vanity,  and  to  substitute  in  their  stead,  kind- 
ness, generosity,  humility,  forbearance  and  courteousness, 
without  the  practice  being  enforced  in  suitable  circumstances, 
as  well  as  the  theory  communicated?  The  boy  may  repeat 
most  correctly,  and  even  understand  in  a  general  way,  the  pre- 
cepts, 'Avenge  not  yourselves,  but  rather  give  place  unto 
wrath,'  'Render  not  evil  for  evil,'  'Be  courteous' ;  but  see  him 
at  play   among  his  companions,  neither  better,  nor  perhaps 


THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  77 

worse,  than  himself,  un-siiperintended,  and  his  conduct  un- 
reviewed  by  parent  or  school-master,  and  what  do  these  scrip- 
tural injunctions  avail  him  when  engaged  in  a  quarrel  ?  Reason 
is  dormant,  passion  reigns  for  the  time  and  the  repeated  exer- 
cise of  such  propensities  strengthens  the  disposition,  and  event- 
ually forms  evil  habits.'^ — Stow. 

"Education  comprises  all  the  influences  which  go  to  form  the 
character.  In  early  infancy,  before  the  child  has  acquired  the 
power  over  thought  and  language  which  fits  him  for  direct  in- 
tercourse with  those  around  him,  he  is  educated  by  the  expe- 
rience which  he  acquires  through  the  natural  activity  of  his 
instincts. 

In  childhood  and  youth  his  education  proceeds  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  family  circle  and  the  school.  In  mature 
years  he  is  again  thrown  upon  the  resources  of  self-education, 
but  now  with  the  power  of  controlling  these  for  definite  ends ; 
and  he  finds  in  the  intercourse  of  society,  in  his  own  reading 
and  reflection,  and  in  the  ministrations  of  the  Christian  church, 
the  means  by  which  his  nature  is  to  reach  its  destined  measure 
of  perfection.  The  education  of  childhood  is  often  spoken  of 
as  if  it  were  pre-eminently  the  education  of  the  whole  man.  It 
is  not  so,  however ;  the  education  which  the  man  carries  on  of 
himself  in  maturity,  when  he  has  come  into  the  possession  of 
all  his  powers,  is  that  which  determines  his  character  and 
position.  The  peculiar  importance  of  the  education  of  child- 
hood lies  in  the  consideration  that  it  prepares  the  way  for  the 
subsequent  self-education  of  manhood.  It  brings  the  man  into 
command  of  his  faculties,  and  enables  him  to  use  his  oppor- 
tunities of  progress  ;  it  equips  him  with  intellectual,  moral  and 
practical  principles,  but  for  which  he  would  pass  through  life 
without  any  purpose  of  self-improvement,  and  without  the 
power  of  profiting  by  its  experience." — Currik. 

"The  aim  of  the  educationalist  is  not  the  giving  of  informa- 
tion, nay,  not  even  instruction,  though  this  is  essential,  but 


78  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

mainly  discipline ;  and  the  aim  of  discipline  is  the  production  of 
a  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body,  the  directing  and  cherishing  of 
the  growth  of  the  whole  nature,  spiritual  and  physical,  so  as  to 
make  it  possible  for  each  man  within  the  limits  of  the  capacity 
which  God  has  given  him,  to  realize  in  and  for  himself,  with 
more  or  less  success,  the  type  of  humanity,  and  in  his  relation 
to  others  to  exhibit  a  capability  for  wise  and  vigorous  action. 
This  result  would  not  be  attained  by  pressure.  By  anticipating 
the  slow  but  sure  growth  of  nature,  we  destroy  the  organism. 
Many  and  subtle  are  the  ways  in  which  nature  avenges  itself  on 
the  delicate,  complicated  machinery  of  man,  but  avenge  itself 
somehow  it  will  and  must." — Laurie. 

"  The  true  view  of  education  is  to  regard  it  as  a  course  of  training. 
The  youth  in  a  gymnasium  practices  upon  the  horizontal  bar 
in  order  to  develop  his  muscular  powers  generally ;  he  does 
not  intend  to  go  on  posturing  upon  horizontal  bars  all  through 
life.  School  is  a  place  where  the  mental  fibres  are  to  be  exercised,  train- 
ed, expanded,  developed  and  strengthened.  *  *  It  is  the  very  purpose 
of  a  liberal  education,  as  it  is  correctly  called,  to  develop  and 
train  the  plastic  fibres  of  the  youthful  brain  so  as  to  prevent 
them  from  taking  too  early  a  definite  'set,'  which  will  afterward 
narrow  and  restrict  the  range  of  acquisition  and  judgment. 
I  will  even  go  so  far  as  to  say  that  it  is  hardly  desirable  for  the 
actual  things  taught  at  school  to  stay  in  the  mind  for  life. 

The  source  of  error  is  the  failure  to  distinguish  between  form 
and  the  matter  of  knowledge ;  between  the  facts  themselves 
and  the  manner  in  which  the  mental  powers  deal  with  facts. 
*  *  *  It  is  the  purpose  of  education  so  to  exercise  the  facul- 
ties of  mind  that  the  infinitely  various  experiences  of  after-life 
may  be  observed  and  reasoned  upon  to  the  best  efiect." — 
Jevons. 

"The  conclusions  of  the  honest  and  intelligent  enquirer  after 
the  truth  in  this  matter,  will  be  something  like  the  following : — 
That  education  (from  e  and  duco,  to  lead  forth)  is  development ; 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  79 

that  it  is  not  instruction  merely — knowledge,  facts,  rules — com- 
municated by  the  teacher,  but  it  is  a  discipline,  it  is  a  waking 
up  of  the  mind — growth  by  a  healthy  assimilation  of  whole- 
some aliment.  It  is  an  inspiring  of  the  mind  with  a  thirst  for 
knowledge,  growth,  enlargement — and  then  a  disciplining  of 
its  powers  so  far  that  it  can  go  on  to  educate  itself.  It  is  the 
arousing  of  the  child's  mind  to  think,  without  thinking  for  it; 
it  is  the  awakening  of  its  powers  to  observe,  to  remember,  to 
reflect,  to  combine.  It  is  not  a  cultivation  of  the  memory  to 
the  neglect  of  everything  else ;  but  it  is  a  calling  forth  of  all 
the  faculties  into  harmonious  action.  If  to  possess  facts  simply 
is  education,  then  an  encyclopaedia  is  better  educated  than  a 
man." — Page. 

"The  central  thought  of  my  doctrine  assumes  that  the  ulti- 
mate or  total  object  of  the  teacher's  profession  is  not  the  com- 
munication of  knowledge  ;  or  even,  according  to  the  favorite 
modern  formula,  the  stimulating  of  the  knowing  faculty,  if  by  the 
knowing  faculty  we  understand  a  faculty  quite  distinguished 
and  separate  from  the  believing  faculty,  the  sensibility,  and  the 
will.  It  has  been  generally  admitted,  for  a  long  time,  that  ed- 
ucation does  not  consist  in  inserting  facts  into  the  pupil's  mem- 
ory, like  specimens  into  a  cabinet,  or  freight  stowed  in  the  hold 
of  a  ship.  But  not  only  must  we  dismiss  those  mechanical  re- 
semblances that  liken  the  mind  to  a  store-room,  a  museum  or  a 
library;  we  must  also  carry  our  conception  of  learning -above 
the  notion  of  an  agile  and  adroit  brain.  Education  does  not 
consist  in  provoking  bare  intellectual  dexterity,  any  more  than 
in  presenting  ascertained  truth  to  the  intellectual  perceptions ; 
or  in  both  together.  Education  involves  appeals  to  faith,  to 
feeling,  to  volition.  The  realm  of  positive  science  shades  off 
on  eveiy  side — not  by  abrupt  transitions,  but  by  imperceptible 
gradations — into  the  realm  of  trust ;  nor  does  science  consult 
her  dignity  more  than  her  modesty,  when  she  undertakes  to 
sharpen  the  partition-line  of  hostility  between  knowledge  and 
belief. 


80  THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

So  does  the  true  training  of  the  mind  involve  an  engagement 
of  the  affections,  including  taste,  or  the  sense  of  beauty,  and 
love,  or  the  sense  of  good,  both  the  mind's  freedom  and  its 
harmony  being  dependent  on  a  healthy  heart.  And  so,  again, 
the  understanding  and  the  feelings  wait  on  that  brave  executor, 
the  will ;  and  nobody  can  be  wise  who  leaves  its  scholarship 
neglected." — Huntington. 


:y'^^sr'»^'^^?iv!K    /iT.,f^(^t2S^ 


--^^-^1 


CHAPTER  IIL 


THE  PRINCIPLE  AND  THE  CONDITION  OF 
EDUCATION 


"I  LKAHNED  early  in  life  that  my  business  was  to  grow." 

Margaret  Fuller. 

"Our  chief  want  in  life  is  somebody  who  shall  make  us  do  what  we  can; 
rach  a  one  is  a  friend. "  Emerson. 


rr  every  one  is  able  to  attain  a  great  amount  of 
knowledge ;  but  every  one  is  capable  of  growth. 
Growth  is  the  fundamental  principle  of  education,  and 
its  condition  is  exercise.  Activity,  or  exercise,  is  the 
law  of  development,  either  mental  or  physical;  and  each 
of  these  two  kinds  has  its  reflex  influence  upon  the 
other.  "Learn  to  do  by  doing,"  is  the  practical  expres- 
sion of  this  thought. 

Comenius  says,   ^^Let  things  that  have  to  he  done,  be 
learned  by  doing  them.  Mechanics  and  artists  do  not  teach 


82  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

their  apprentices  by  disquisitions,  but  by  giving  them 
something  to  do.  They  are  taught  to  make  anything 
by  making  it,  to  paint  by  painting,  to  dance  by  dancing, 
etc.  So  we  should  teach  to  write  by  writing,  to  read  by 
reading,  to  sing  by  singing,  to  reason  by  reasoning,  etc." 

The  several  elements  of  the  child's  nature  grow  by 
exercise  suitable  in  kind  and  amount.  By  physical  ex- 
ercise the  body  is  invigorated  and  developed,  and  by  no 
other  conceivable  means. 

By  the  exercise  of  its  several  faculties,  likewise,  does 
the  mind  attain  its  power  to  use  them.  No  faculty  can 
interchange  with  any  other.  The  faculty  of  language  is 
developed  by  speaking ;  of  observation,  by  observing ; 
of  imagination,  by  imagining;  and  of  reason  by  reason- 
ing. If  but  one  is  exercised,  but  one  is  educated ;  if 
one  is  over-exercised,  the  excess  does  not  flow  over  to 
the  benefit  of  another. 

The  moral  powers,  also,  require  their  own  appropriate 
exercise.  Morality  being  a  quality  of  actions,  it  is  by 
regulation  of  the  conduct  according  to  its  laws  that 
morality  is  inculcated.  Intelligence  does  not  secure  it. 
If  the  pupil  is  to  be  educated  to  the  truth,  he  must  be 
led  to  act  and  to  speak  the  truth ;  to  honesty,  he  must 
be  led  to  act  honestly  in  cases  where  his  honesty  is 
tried ;  to  diligence,  he  must  be  caused  to  apply  himself 
to  strenuous  work. 

Observation  has  made  it  plain  that  the  mind's  faculties 
grow  by  exercise,  but  this  has  been  thought  to  be  .pe- 
culiarly true  of  thought  and  attention^  which  are  energies 
eminently  dependent  upon  the  will.  Education  is  a  growth, 


THE   THEORY  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  83 

a  habit.  Hence  no  one  can  be  said  to  know  how  to  com- 
mand his  faculties  who  has  not  the  habit  of  it.  This  state 
is  attained  only  by  those  who  exert  their  faculties  to  the 
maximum  degrees,  so  that  this  state  becomes  habitual. 
Mere  theory  will  never  produce  these  habits.  All  teach- 
ing of  pupils  how  to  study,  which  does  not  demand  of 
them  their  maximum  efforts  in  practice^  is  ineffective. 
"The  arm  of  the  smith  does  not  grow  strong  by  his  look- 
ing at  the  hammer,  but  by  his  wielding  it."  Intellectual 
growth  comes  not  by  thinking  how* to  study,  but  by  men- 
tal application  in  studying  up  to  the  measure  of  the  highest 
degrees.  Difficulty  in  school  tvork  is  objected  to  only  by 
those  educators  who  hold  to  the  theory  that  the  aim  of  school 
education  is  the  accumulation  of  knowledge;  to  those  who 
hold  to  the  theory  that  school  education  has  for  its  end  the 
conferring  of  power  and  skill,  the  highest  stretch  of  difficulty 
appropriate  to  the  mind  of  the  pupil,  is  seen  to  be  a  requis- 
ite. Nay  more.  Even,  if  an  idea  is  too  difficult  to  be  mas- 
tered by  the  pupil,  it  may  nevertheless  be  selected  as  an  exer- 
cise-ground^ and  the  consideration  of  it  confers  upon  him  a 
high  degree  of  power  to  think. 

*In  the  application  of  these  thoughts  to  education  it 
is  necessary  to  advert  to  the  reflex  influence  which  in 
any  given  psychological  process  runs  back  from  action 
to  its  source.  Action,  in  satisfying  a  desire,  in  gratify- 
ing an  interest,  in  expressing  an  emotion,  by  a  reflex 
influence  strengthens,  purifies,  idealizes  these  forms  of 
feeling,  and  through  them  their  corresponding  forms  in 
thought.  Hence,  action  is  a  most  powerful  instrument 
in  education  for  quickening  all  forms  of  thought-growth. 


84  THE  THEORY  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

Through  action,  the  subjective  becomes  objective;  the 
inner  assumes  an  outer  existence,  in  terms  of  the  outer. 
Thus  an  opportunity  is  afforded  for  testing  the  correct- 
ness of  the  inner  conceptions,  with  reference  to  their 
outer  counterparts,  by  comparison.  The  contrast  be- 
tween the  original  outer  counterpart,  and  the  outer  re- 
production of  the  conception,  appears  as  inaccuracies, 
deficiencies,  exaggerations,  etc.,  that  require  correction. 
Thus  outer  action  pushes  conception  (subjective  action) 
steadily  and  surely  nearer  to  objective  truth. 

In  the  case  of  the  will,  action  appears  as  conduct, 
which  as  practice,  exerts  a  powerful  reflex  influence  in 
fixing  the  will  into  habit,  and  establishing  the  character. 

The  primary  conditions,  then,  under  which  psycho- 
logical growth  occurs,  are :  first,  an  active  external,  capa- 
ble of  making  impression;  second,  an  active  internal, 
capable  of  receiving  these  impressions,  and  of  controlling 
the  external  for  subjective  needs.  Hence,  the  work  of 
education  is  to  adjust  surroundings  with  reference  to  the 
subjective  needs,  so  as  to  call  forth  appropriate  activity 
on  the  part  of  the  pupil.'* 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  doing,  in  the  educa- 
tional process,  is  of  two  kinds : 

1.  Mental.     (Thinking,  feeling,  willing). 

2.  Manual.     (Preceded,  accompanied,  and  followed 
by  mental  doing). 

,  Under  the  first,  it  has  been  said  that  "the  great  mis- 
take of  education  is  the  attempt  to  learn  to  do  one  thing 
by  doing  something  else.*' 

*W.  N.  HAILMANN. 


THE   THEORY  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  85 

If  reading  is  the  association  of  thought  with  expres- 
sion, the  pupil  can  not  learn  to  associate  thought  and 
expression  by  dealing  with  the  pronunciation  of  words. 

If  arithmetic  is  "the  limitation  of  things  by  ones,'*  the 
child  can  not  learn  to  do  this  by  studying  figures  ;  and 
likewise  in  regard  to  the  other  subjects. 

The  manner  in  which  outward  action  may  press  sub- 
jective action,  i.e.,  conceptions,  nearer  to  objective  truth, 
appears  to  a  degree  from  the  following :  * 

Liquid  Measure, — The  teacher  should  be  furnished 
with  gill,  pint,  quart  and  gallon  measures,  also  a  box  of 
sand,  or  some  water.  The  children  may  be  asked  to 
name  some  measure  they  know,  and  to  point  it  out ;  with 
that  for  a  starting-point,  proceed  to  other  measures.  If 
a  quart  is  first  selected,  let  another  child  find  another 
measure,  and  tell,  if  he  knows,  what  it  is.  Then  let  him 
find  out  for  himself,  by  measuring  the  sand  or  water,  how 
many  of  one  are  the  other.  If  a  gallon  is  next  selected, 
let  some  one  see  how  many  times  he  can  fill  the  quart 
and  pour  into  the  gallon,  the  children  watching  and 
counting.  Proceed  in  a  similar  manner  with  the  other 
measures.  Ask  what  articles  are  measured  with  these 
measures.  Who  use  them.  Have  the  children  buy  and 
sell  quantities  of  that  which  is  measured  by  liquid 
measure. 

Curved  Lines. — Provide  the  children  with  short  pieces 
of  stiff,  yet  pliable  wire.  Ask  them  to  bend  the  wire 
into  different  positions.     Have  them  make  similar  lines 

*  XDX70ATI0N  BY  DOIMO,  BY  ▲.  JOHNSON,  B.  L.  KKLLOOO  A  00. 


SQ  THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

on  the  board.  Try  to  have  them  make  all  the  positions 
themselves — curved,  crooked,  broken,  waved,  spiral, 
circle,  and  semi-circle.  If  they  do  not  do  so  readily, 
direct  their  attention  to  objects  that  contain  them.  Show 
a  ring,  arch,  spring,  draw  a  spider's  web,  waves,  etc. 
Refer  to  straight  parallel  lines,  and  then  have  them 
make  with  the  wire,  and  then  draw  parallel  curved 
lines. 

Forvij  (With  Clay.) — Have  each  pupil  furnished  with 
a  small  piece  of  board,  and  a  piece  of  moistened  clay. 
Have  the  ball  or  sphere  made  first.  What  kind  of  sur- 
face has  it?  How  many  hemispheres  can  be  made  of  it? 
What  part  of  a  sphere  is  a  hemisphere?  How  many 
halves  in  a  sphere?  In  an  apple  ?  In  anything  ?  How 
many  faces  has  it?  What  kind?  What  edges?  Let  them 
place  the  two  halves  together,  then  press  it,  and  make 
an  oblate-spheroid;  then  make  it  round  again,  and  taper 
one  end  for  an  ovate-spheroid.  Return  again  to  the 
sphere,  and  cut  off  each  side  for  a  cube.  Review  the  shape 
as  to  faces,  edges  and  corners.  Roll  it  out  for  a  cylinder, 
cut  off  the  sides  for  a  square  prism ;  cut  in  two  for  a 
triangular  prism.     Then  form  pyramids,  cones,  etc. 

Let  them  make  the  shapes  of  different  kinds  of  fruit, 
using  little  sticks  for  stems  ;  for  strawberries  they  could 
make  little  indentures  with  pins  for  the  seeds.  Have  a 
talk  about  each  kind  of  fruit,  and  when  practicable  pre- 
sent the  real  fruit. 

Have  a  lesson  on  the  bird's  nest,  and  let  them  mold 
it  in  clay,  make  the  eggs,  and  place  them  in  the  nest. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  87 

Let  them  give  the  names  of  and  talk  about  little  birds 
that  they  know. 

A  great  variety  of  objects  can  be  made  and  a  little  les- 
son on  each  given.  The  children  may  also  exercise  their 
own  ingenuity  and  devise  many  new  forms. 

Form,  (With  Paper.) — Let  each  child  be  given  some 
short,  narrow  pieces  of  colored  paper  and  cards,  or  small 
pieces  of  paste-board  or  box-covers,  the  size  of  cards. 
Dissolve  five  cents'  worth  of  gum  tragacanth  in  a  bowl 
of  water,  and  pour  into  small  butter-plates,  placing  one 
plate  for  the  use  of  two  or  three  children. 

The  children  may  paste  the  papers  on  their  cards, 
using  all  the  positions  of  straight  lines,  angles,  and 
figures  enclosed  with  straight  lines  which  they  have 
learned.  The  teacher  may  have  these  previously  drawn 
upon  the  board  for  children  to  copy. 

As  it  will  take  many  days  for  them  to  finish  their 
sets,  they  may  have  small  rubber  bands  to  slip  over 
their  cards;  the  top  card  may  have  the  name  of  the 
pupil  written  upon  it,  so  that  each  child  may  get  his 
own  package  each  time.  When  a  set  is  completed  it 
may  be  laid  aside  for  review,  and  at  the  close  of  the 
term  given  to  the  child. 

When  the  children  become  expert  in  this  work,  they 
may  be  furnished  with  muslin  scrap-books,  which  may 
be  when  filled,  laid  aside  for  exhibition. 

Geography y  (Third  Year.) — Have  a  board  4x5  feet 
made,  with  a  rim  around  the  edge  an  inch  high.  Upon 
this  board,  which  should  be  adjusted  to  a  table  or  desk. 


88  THE   THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

put  half  a  bushel  of  moulding  sand,  such  as  may  be  had 
from  a  foundry ;  or  if  this  is  impracticable,  a  half  bushel 
of  moist  loam,  sifted,  will  answer  the  purpose  well. 
With  the  use  of  blocks,  toy  houses,  trees,  animals,  large 
and  small  pieces  of  looking  glass,  green  tissue  paper, 
narrow  blue  ribbon  or  tape,  small  twigs  for  evergreen 
trees,  shells,  and  stones,  the  principal  definitions  in  geo- 
graphy may  be  practically  and  impressively  taught. 

When  the  class  is  small,  it  is  best  to  have  all  of  them 
gather  around  the  moulding  board ;  but  when  the  class 
is  large,  a  part  may  gather  round  the  board,  while  the 
others  observe  and  suggest.  The  teacher  should  be  care- 
ful to  give  every  pupil  his  proportion  of  time  at  the 
moulding  board.  In  giving  an  idea  of  the  sea-shore, 
place  a  large  piece  of  looking-glass  on  one  side  of  the 
moulding  board,  and  fill  the  rest  with  sand. 

Tell  the  children  you  will  have  a  talk  with  them 
about  the  earth  or  world  in  which  they  live. 

On  what  do  ships  sail?  On  what  are  houses  built? 
What  two  things  are  found  on  the  earth  ?  What  have 
we  to  represent  water  on  this  board?  What  the  land? 
Who  will  find  the  place  where  the  land  and  water  come 
together?  Does  anyone  know  what  we  call  the  place 
where  the  land  and  water  come  together?  Give  the 
term  coast  or  shore.  When  sailors  go  far  off  on  the  water, 
where  do  we  say  they  have  gone?  What  may  we  call 
this  water?  What  may  we  call  this  shore  or  coast? 
How  many  have  ever  been  to  the  sea-shore  ?  How  does 
the  water  of  the  sea  taste  ?  If  they  do  not  know,  place 
some  salt  in  water  and  have  them  taste  it.    Of  what  use 


THE  THEORY   OP  THE  SCHOOL.  89 

is  the  sea?  Speak  of  the  water  rising,  forming  into 
clouds,  and  returning  in  rain,  etc.  In  a  similar  manner 
may  be  considered  valleys,  mountains,  plains,  deserts, 
etc. 

THUS,  GROWTH,  BASED  UPON  THE  ALL-COMPREHENSIVE  LAW  OF 
ACTIVITY,  OR  GROWTH  BASED  ON  EXERCISE  UPON  APPROPRIATE 
MATERIAL — THE  EXERCISE  BEING  GIVEN  FOR  THE  PURPOSE  OF  THE 
GRO^VTH,  AND  ONLY  SECONDARILY  FOR  THE  SAKE  OF  THE  MATERIAL- 
IS  THE  CENTRAL  THOUGHT  OF  EDUCATION. 


•*-»^^^<<-*' 


-^mmMmMm^^ 


CHAPTER  IK 


TIIK  K\         >   r]'GiiOUND  IN  EDUCATION. 


•■\'\  Mi.l    iluMi.  ■•!  ,l(.ti(.l  knew."      Tho 

Hurpii  ;  ilKM-o  In  anything; dial  hlM  i)iircntH 

(loiuii  IjiKt  .\  Ih'H  \\o  luiH  ())Ku>  <liH(!ov(TO(l  that 

:    I.'  that 

rs  (hey 

r  ;(.  him  with 

'i!i  ,  and  Miiii-i^'   .  II    11.1   Ihiitcdlioatlon 

has  I 

— '  1 1 A I :  I ;  I  MX  M  A  ifl'  I N 1 :  ah'  s  1 1, 'u^,- hold  Education. 


<g||N  error  frequently  made  is  to  demand  of  the  school 
^"^  all  kinds  of  education, — education  for  trades  and 

business,  in  religion,  in  politics,  and  in  habits  which  the 

nurture  of  the  family  sliould  supply. 

Education,  in  the  full  sense,  includes  the  whole  life 

of  man,  in  so  far  as  the  different  institutions  of  human 

life  react  upon  the  individual  and  educate  him.    These 

institutions  are  the  family,  the  school,  the  church,  the 

social  community,  and  the  state. 
The  education  that  is  received  by  each  individual  is 

of  two  kinds : 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  91 

1.  The  education  of  direct  preparation^  the  stage  of 
development  and  training.  (Knowledge  being  neces- 
sarily acquired  as  it  is  the  divinely  appointed  exercise- 
^ound,  or  instrument,  but  being  secondary  in  consider- 
ation.) 

2.  The  education  resulting  from  use,  the  stage  of 
application  and  acquiring.  (Discipline  being  necessari- 
ly advanced,  as  the  mind  is  constantly  acting  upon  the 
conditions  and  materials  presented,  but  not  being 
sought  primarily.) 

The  institutions  that  are  designed  to  confer  the  pre- 
paratory development  and  training,  are  the  family,  kin- 
dergarten and  school,  and  to  a  degree,  the  church  ;  while 
those  whose  main  function  is  to  educate  through  use  are 
the  church,  business  society  and  the  state.  Each  of 
these  five  institutions  gives  a  special  kind  of  education, 
which  can  not  be  given  by  any  one  of  the  others.  Their 
combined  efiforts  are  to  make  the  mere  individual  the 
possessor  of  the  fruits  of  the  labors  and  experience  of 
the  human  race — to  elevate  him  to  his  species. 

The  education  that  the  child  receives  in  the  Family 
extends  thus  far:  by  example,  precept,  and  sympathy 
he  is  trained  into  good  sentiments  and  habits — habits 
of  behavior  toward  superiors,  equals  and  inferiors;  hab- 
its of  personal  cleanliness,  of  proper  dress,  of  eating,  of 
drinking,  industry,  economy,  etc.  Through  these  three 
i.e.,  example,  precept  and  sympathy,  he  receives  also  his 
primary  ideas  of  right  and  wrong ;  by  constant  familiar 
conversation,  the  family  develops  the  child's  latent  capa- 
city for  language,  and  it  develops  his  power  of  observar 


92  THE   THEORY   OP  THE   SCHOOL. 

tion,  and  awakens  his  interest  in  knowledge,  by  exercis- 
ing his  intelligence  on  the  things  around  him.  The 
advantages  of  the  family  for  discharging  its  responsi- 
bility are  chiefly  two :  indefinite  strength  of  afiection 
between  parent  and  child,  whereby  the  one  is  impelled 
to  seek  the  true  welfare  of  the  other;  and  indefinite  con- 
tact in  the  daily  engagements  of  life,  whereby  the  parent 
has  the  child's  actions  under  his  constant  inspection 
with  a  view  to  the  formation  of  habits,  and  has  ade- 
quate opportunity  of  intercourse  to  quicken  into  life 
the  germs  of  his  moral  and  intellectual  nature. 

All  the  other  institutions  presuppose  in  the  child  that 
he  has  learned  these  great  fundamental  lessons  in  the 
family.  If  he  has  not,  the  other  institutions  are  at  a 
great  disadvantage.  The  school  can  do  but. little  for 
him,  because  it  can  not  well  deal  with  a  child  who  does 
not  know  language,  and  who  is  not  industrious,  nor  can 
it  take  time  to  teach  him  all  the  personal  habits  he 
should  know.  The  church  will  be  very  much  hamper- 
ed with  him,  for  the  spirit  of  reverence  is  lacking  in 
him. 

The  social  and  business  community  can  not  receive 
the  child  who  comes  to  it  devoid  of  family  training; 
for  he  lacks  the  sense  of  social  propriety,  has  no  respect 
for  the  rights  of  property,  is  not  honest  nor  truthful, 
and  has  no  instinct  for  industry.  The  beggar  is  the 
symbol  of  the  destruction  of  the  social  community. 

Even  the  state  will  of  necessity  reject  him,  and  be 
unable  to  permit  him  to  exercise  his  liberty,  because 
he  lacks  the  habits  which  would  make  him  a  safe  person ; 


THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  93 

he  has  not  attained  the  characteristics  which  are  essen- 
tial to  the  individual  for  living  in  a  lawful  community. 
The  state  imprisons  him,  therefore, — his  period  of  family 
nurture,  having  been  an  education  into  hostility  to  social 
forms. 

The  function  of  the  School  in  education,  is  peculiarly 
the  development  of  the  powers  of  the  mind,  so  that  the 
pupil  may  have  full  use  of  them  in  after  life. 

PRESENT  KNOWLEDGE  IS  NOT  GIVEN  EXCEPT  IN  A  SUBORDINATE 
SENSE,  FOR  ITS  OWN  SAKE,  NOR  WITH  A  VIEW  TO  FUTURE  PROFES- 
SIONAL OCCUPATION,  BUT  THAT  THE  PUPIL  WHO  HAS  GONE  THROUGH 
THE  PROCESS  OF  EXERCISING  HIS  MIND  UPON  THE  IDEAS — THEY 
FORMING  IN  THE  FIRST  SENSE  MERELY  EXERCISE-GROUNDS — MAY 
GAIN  THEREFROM  THE  POWER  TO  THINK  ACCURATELY,  FEEL,  WILL, 
AND  ACT  RIGHTLY,  AND  HENCE  ACQUIRE  WITH  FACILITY,  PRESSING 
THEREBY  TOWARD  RATIONAL   FREEDOM — THE  GOAL. 

According  to  the  degree  in  which  it  tends  to  give  this 
power  and  this  disposition,  is  any  branch  of  knowledge 
a  suitable  or  an  unsuitable  instrument  for  school  pur- 
poses. The  school  has  a  general,  not  a  special  design ; 
it  does  not  consider  how  much  of  this  subject  or  of  that 
will  be  required  to  fit  the  pupil  for  such  and  such  a 
position  ;  but  how  it  can  best  discipline  his  mind.  The 
elevation  of  character  implied  in  the  attainment  of  this 
end,  will  better  prepare  Tiim  for  the  position  he  may  be 
called  on  to  occupy,  than  any  accumulation  of  knowl- 
edge presented  to  him  from  its  apparent  exclusive  adap- 
tation to  its  requirements. 

The  Church  is  the  highest  educational  institution,  be- 
cause it  reveals  the  highest  principle  to  man, — that  of 


94  THE   THEORY  OP  THE  SCHOOL. 

the  Creator.  In  revealing  this  principle,  it  reveals  the 
origin  and  destiny  of  the  world  of  nature,  and  of  man. 
Under  such  an  education  as  the  religion  of  Pantheism 
teaches,  there  can  be  only  despotism  in  the  state,  slavery 
in  the  social  community,  and  patriarchal  rule  in  the 
family.  But  with  the  Christian  ideal,  the  individual  is 
all-important,  and  the  progress  is  toward  the  education 
and  preservation  of  each  individual. 

The  education  succeeding  that  of  the  church,  is  that 
of  the  Business  and  Social  Community.  This  is  regarded 
as  third  in  importance ;  that  of  the  church  being  first, 
of  the  state  second,  of  the  family  fourth,  and  of  the 
school  fifth.  In  this  sphere,  the  business  relation  of 
man  to  his  fellow  men,  continually  educates  the  individ- 
ual, and  humanizes  him,  or  degrades  him,  according  as 
his  employment  is  rational  or  the  reverse. 

As  before  said,  the  education  of  the  State  ranks  in  im- 
portance next  to  that  of  the  church.  The  influence  of 
the  form  of  government,  its  laws  and  the  efficiency  of 
their  execution,  have  a  most  powerful  eJBFect  in  forming 
the  character  of  each  citizen.  What  can  school  educa- 
tion do  toward  making  a  man  of  the  child  who  is  born 
under  the  blight  of  absolute  despotism  ?  The  education 
of  the  state  would  dwarf  such  an  individual  more  than 
the  school  could  cause  him  to  grow.  But  under  a  free 
government,  where  each  citizen  is  permitted  to  assist  in 
making  the  laws,  this  education  is  very  powerful  toward 
building  up  self-respect  and  strong  individuality.'  * 


*  W.  T.  HARRIS. 


THE  THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  95 

Show  that  each  of  these  institutions  is  an  organism,  and  that 
each  is  an  organic  part  of  a  greater  organism — the  Social  System. 

Make  it  clear  that  the  purpose  of  the  social  system  is  rational 
or  truth-freedom. 

Of  these  five  educational  institutions,  the  one  that 
claims  specific  consideration,  in  this  connection,  is 
The  Schooly  involving  first  a  treatment  of  its  vestibule — 
The  Kindergarten. 


(»>SZi<»N^TK     /i?^*!Sr^rzS^ 


CHAPTER  V. 


THE  KINDERGARTEN. 


Those  that  do  teach  young  babes, 

Do  it  with  gentle  means  and  easy  tasks. 

— Shakespbabe. 

That  which  issues  from  the  heart  alone 
Can  bind  the  hearts  of  others  to  our  own. 

— GOBTHK. 

"Die  Kindheit  von  heute 

1st  die  menschheit  von  morgen." 


THE  GENESIS  OF  THE  KINDERGARTEN, 

inquiry,  however  brief  or  imperfect,  into  the 
genesis  of  an  educational  system,  for  which  so 
much  is  claimed  as  for  Froebelism,  can  be  altogether 
without  use.  Nothing  can  be  rightly  understood  but  by 
considering  its  connection  with  other  things,  since  "to 
understand'*  is  to  perceive  the  relations  of  ideas.  Indeed, 
to  limit  one's  attention  to  Froebel's  method  itself,  with- 
out ever  attempting  a  more  comprehensive  view,  is  like- 


THE  THEORY   OF   THE  SCHOOL.  97 

ly  to  contort  rather  than  intensify  the  mental  vision.  In 
the  intellectual  firmament,  reflected  light  plays  as  im- 
portant a  part  as  in  the  physical. 

All  systems  may  be  said  to  have  descended  from  pre- 
vious ones.  Of  thought,  which  is  a  product  of  life  as  of 
life,  there  is  no  spontaneous  generation.  The  ideas  of 
one  generation  are  the  mysterious  progenitors  of  those 
of  the  next.  Each  age  is  the  dawn  of  its  successor,  and 
in  the  eternal  advance  of  truth. 

There  always  is  a  rising  sun, 
And  day  is  ever  but  begun. 

It  is  thus  true  that  there  is  nothing  new  under  the 
sun,  since  the  new  grows  from  the  old,  as  boughs  grow 
from  the  tree ;  and  though  errors  and  exaggerations  are, 
from  time  to  time,  shaken  off,  yet  "the  things  which 
cannot  be  shaken"  will  certainly  abide. 

Carlyle  says,  "Literature  is  but  a  branch  of  religion, 
and  always  participates  in  its  character."  It  is  still 
more  true  that  education  is  a  branch  of  psychology,  and 
takes  its  mould  and  fashion  from  it.  For  it  is  evident 
that  as  philosophy,  in  successive  ages,  gives  varying 
answers  as  to  man's  chief  end  and  summum  bonum^  so 
education,  which  is  simply  an  attempt  to  prepare  him 
thereto,  must  vary  accordingly.  Humboldt  hints  that 
the  vegetation  of  whole  regions  bespeaks,  and  depends 
on,  the  strata  beneath  ;  and  it  is  certainly  true  that  we 
cannot  delve  long  in  the  teacher's  plot  without  coming 
upon  those  moral  questions  which  "go  down  to  the 
centre." 

1.  The  dawn  of  the  New  Education  arose  after  the 


98  THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

night  of  the  middle  ages.  During  those  long  centuries, 
in  education,  obedience  without  intelligence  was  the 
pupil's  dreary  task,  and  self-denial  without  love  his 
ideal  of  Christian  duty.  The  ''dim  religious  light"  of 
the  Church  gave  hardly  a  glimpse  of  the  beautiful  world 
of  Nature  without. 

2.  On  this  "opaque  of  nature  and  of  soul"  the  light 
of  the  New  Learning  broke  in.  Men's  eyes  were  sub- 
denly  opened  to  see  "a  beauty  that  was  Greece,  and  a 
grandeur  that  was  Rome,"  and  to  reverence  once  more 
the  wisdom  and  piety  of  the  classic  past.  A  more  eclec- 
tic intellect,  a  more  genial  sympathy,  a  more  Hellenistic 
conception  of  life  came  upon   Western  Europe,  and, 

Thus  deeply  drinking  in  the  soul  of  things^ 
They  became  wise  perforce. 

Education  changed  accordingly.  It  began  to  recog- 
nize that  man  has  to  be  trained  for  this  world  as  well 
as  for  the  future  one  ;  that  though  the  way  to  heaven 
is  strait,  ''not  every  strait  way  leads  there ;"  and  that  in 
Physical  Nature's  vast  museum  was  offered  a  field  more 
worthy  of  man's  faculties  than  the  wandering  mazes  of 
scholasticism. 

3.  Strange  to  say,  however,  the  Spirit  of  the  Reform- 
ation suj0fered  an  early  divorce  from  that  of  the  Renais- 
sance, and  in  the  hands  of  the  Protestant,  on  the  one 
hand,  as  of  Jesuits  on  the  other,  education  crystallized, 
or  rather  congealed,  into  methods,  which  for  two  hun- 
dred YEARS  have  been  USED  BY  ALL  TEACHERS,  AND  CON- 
DEMNED BY  ALL  REFORMERS.  The  publication  of  Rous- 
seau's Emile  was  a  protest,  and  its  date  marks  the  next 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  99 

great  epoch.  Rousseau  demanded  that  man  should  be 
treated  as  an  organism,  and  that  education  should  be 
a  development  of  all  the  faculties  of  that  organism.  He 
discarded  the  prejudices  of  society  and  the  dogmas  of 
authority,  and  took  as  his  watchwords,  Nature,  Reason, 
and  Individuality. 

4.  But  the  crude  audacities  of  the  French  philoso- 
pher had,  after  the  Revolution,  to  be  disentangled  and 
woven  into  order  by  German  labor  and  insight.  How 
the  philosophy  of  Kant  or  Hegel  contributed  to  the  re- 
sult, we  would  not  attempt  to  trace  out.  But  notably 
from  the  fertile  and  sympathetic  mind  of  Richter  came 
forth  in  full  luxuriance  the  ideas  which  Froebel  plucked 
and  arranged  with  such  discernment.  Richter  delighted 
to  preach  the  doctrine  of  an  ideal-Man,  and  that  educa- 
tion is  the  harmonious  development  of  the  faculties  and 
dispositions  of  each  individual.  He  would  give  ample 
scope  especially  to  the  fancy  and  imagination  of  a  child, 
in  whose  hand  "the  simplest  wand  is  like  Aaron's  rod 
which  budded."  No  one,  moreover,  knew  better  than  he, 
that  (in  Carlyle's  words)  "A  loving  heart  is  the  begin- 
ning of  all  knowledge.  This  it  is  that  opens  the  whole 
mind,  and  quickens  every  faculty  of  the  intellect  to  do 
its  fit  work." 

5.  Inspired  by  the  same  principles,  Pestalozzi  and 
Froebel  devised  their  methods.  Pestalozzi  may  be  styled 
the  father  of  popular  education.  He  would  develop  the 
human  being  from  within  outward;  would  give  primary 
importance  to  the  receptive  and  perceptive  faculties; 
and  held  self-activity  to  be  the  great  condition  of  pro- 


102  THE  THEORY  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

The  tables  are  three  feet  by  eighteen  inches,  ruled  in 
inch  squares;  or  six  feet  by  two  feet,  with  a  line  one 
inch  from  each  edge. 

The  reason  for  these  measurements  ? 

In  the  kindergarten  are  the  head  teacher,  a  mature 
woman,  and  young  girls,  one  for  each  class  of  ten  or 
twenty. 

These  young  girls  are  as  older  sisters  to  the  pupils, 
and  take  a  loving  and  intelligent  interest  in  all  that 
concerns  them.  They  carry  into  execution  the  plans  of 
the  head  teacher,  and  consult  with,  and  are  advised  by 
her  upon  all  points. 

What  two  reasons  are  there  for  the  employment  of  young 
girls  in  the  kindergarten  ? 

The  apparatus  devised  for  the  kindergarten  consists 
of  balls,  wooden  cubes,  paper,  and  various  other  mate- 
rials that  allow  the  children  to  exercise  their  physical 
powers  and  their  imagination. 

The  occupations  with  these  gifts  are  strictly  graded, 
and  by  means  of  them  the  children  become  somewhat 
familiar  with  the  elements  of  music,  form,  number,  size; 
the  properties  and  uses  of  objects ;  language;  and  the 
beginnings  of  moral  training. 

Show  in  what  way  each  of  the  above  points  is  gained. 

The  occupations  having  been  pursued  for  a  time,  the 
children  repair  to  the  large  room  for  games.  These 
games  have  a  three-fold  object : 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  103 

To  give  physical  exercise. 

To  call  into  exercise  the  imagination. 

To  cultivate  the  moral  nature. 

How  in  the  games  may  these  objects  be  accomplished  ? 

The  games  of  the  kindergarten  are  founded  on  the 
observed  habits  of  children.  They  have  specifically,  in 
relation  to  the  body,  a  two-fold  purpose : 

To  give  exercise  to  the  voice  and  body  in  general. 

To  train  some  particular  sense  or  muscle.'* 

GIFTS  AND  OCCUPATIONS,  t 

Kommt,  lasst  uns  unsem  kindem  leben. 

— Froebel. 

Froebel,  adopting  the  principle  of  Comenius,  that 
nature  does  nothing  per  saltum,  held  that  education 
should  be  so  conducted  that  it  shall  have  no  abrupt 
transitions. 

It  is  to  be  expected,  therefore  that  each  step  in  the 
occupations  shall  be  a  logical  sequence  from  the  preced- 
ing. Such  is  the  case.  The  various  occupations  are 
developed  one  from  another  in  a  perfectly  natural  order, 
beginning  with  the  most  simple  and  concluding  with 
the  most  difficult.  Taken  together,  therefore,  they  sat- 
isfy all  the  demands  of  the  child's  nature  in  respect 
both  of  physical  and  mental  culture,  and  lay  a  sure 
foundation  for  all  subsequent  education  of  school  and 
of  life. 

♦kindergarten  manual,  by  J.  8.  LAURIE.  f  KINDEROAETEN  HANDBOOK 

BT  P.  A.  STEELE. 


104  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

Systematic  work,  though  apparently  slow,  is  always  econom- 
ical in  the  end,  as  it  avoids  the  waste  of  time  and  power 
which  is  incurred  in  finding  and  connecting  the  lost 
threads  of  unsystematic  work.  Thus,  a  sure  basis  in 
lessons  and  exercises  on  Form  will  prepare  for  a  study 
of  those  branches  in  which  a  knowledge  of  form  is  re- 
quired, as  geometry,  drawing,  geography,  etc. 

In  the  kindergarten  the  children's  work  begins  with 
materials  that  are  whole,  substantial,  and  undivided,  and 
proceeds  to  parts,  to  the  less  substantial,  and  to  the  divided. 
The  first  are  more  easily  seen,  are  more  tangible,  and 
therefore  plainer  to  the  capacity  of  the  young  child. 
Hence  the  solids  form  the  first  group  of  the  occupations. 
These  are  followed  by  planes,  which  form  the  basis  for 
several  series  of  occupations  and  designs. 

The  lines,  which  are  the  edges  of  the  surfaces,  become 
the  next  material.  From  the  line,  the  passage  is  to  the 
point,  represented  by  the  end  of  the  line,  and  appearing 
in  the  occupation  termed  pricking.  In  this  the  points 
are  holes,  which  are  ranged  in  rows  or  lines,  and  thus 
lead  again  to  the  outline  of  a  surface.  In  the  reverse 
order  the  surface  ascends  to  the  solid,  and  the  circle  of 
consecutive  occupations  is  thus  completed. 

The  kindergarten  occupations  would  therefore  develop 
in  the  following  order : 

1.  Solids — ball,  cube  and  cylinder— gifts  one  to  six. 

2.  Surfaces — Wooden  and  paper  planes. 

3.  Lines— sticks,  lines  drawn  on  slates  and  paper, 
rings,  thread. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  105 

4.  Points — produced  by  pricking,  or  represented  by- 
peas  in  peawork. 

Ascending  from  points  to  lines  and  surfaces,  solids  are 
reached,  which  may  be  given  to  the  children  in  an  un- 
finished condition,  or  as  shapeless  material,  so  that  they 
may  make  their  own  solids,  with  clay  and  other  plastic 
materials. 

FIRST  GIFT. 

The  first  gift  consists  of  six  worsted  balls  of  the  rain- 
bow colors,  with  strings  attached.  It  is  said  that  Froebel 
selected  the  balls  as  the  first  gift  because  he  wished  to 
found  all  the  toys  used  for  his  games  upon  a  mathemat- 
ical basis,  and  because  the  spherical  shape  of  the  ball  is 
the  simplest  and  most  perfect  form  of  all  solid  objects, 
and  is  that  in  which  all  other  forms  are  contained. 
They  became  the  first  gift  also  because  he  noticed  that 
a  ball  is  the  first  object  a  mother  gives  to  her  child  as 
soon  as  it  is  able  to  play,  and  because  it  seems  to  be  a 
favorite  even  with  large  children. 

In  compliance  with  the  principle  that  in  education 
there  should  be  no  abrupt  transitions,  it  is  to  be  expect 
ed  that  tliis  first  gift  forms  the  connection  between  the 
family  and  the  kindergarten. 

By  its  use  in  the  family  the  child  learns  the  primary 
and  the  secondary  colors  and  to  express  himself  in  cor- 
rect language  concerning  the  various  powers  and  move- 
ments of  the  ball.  In  the  kindergarten  he  finds  his  old 
gift  exhibiting  new  powers  in  the  hands  of  numbers  in- 
stead of  one.     If  the  child  is  timid,  he  is  allowed  to 


106  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

observe  the  game  or  occupation  until  he  shows  a  disposi- 
tion to  join  it.  This  is  on  the  principle  that  no  forcing 
it  to  be  attempted,  but  that  the  teacher  is  to  watch  for  the 
first  sign  of  inclination,  and  then  call  it  into  exercise. 
The  balls  are  taken  out  for  use  somewhat  as  follows : 
All  stand  in  a  ring,  and  the  balls  are  brought  out  by 
some  of  the  children,  chosen  from  those  who  volunteer, 
and  they  are  handed  gently  from  one  to  another  until 
all  are  supplied. 

The  advantage  of  this  ? 

The  following  may  be  given  as  specimen  exercises 
with  this  gift : 

The  children  by  direction  hold  the  balls  above  the 
head,  in  the  right  hand  and  then  in  the  left. 

Again  the  ball  is  held  in  both  hands  in  front  of  the 
body,  and  then  gently  raised  above  the  head,  and  lower- 
ed to  the  floor,  etc. 

"What  is  gained  by  the  first  exercise  ?    What  by  the  second  ? 

When  some  skill  has  been  gained  in  these  exercises 
but  before  the  children  are  wearied,  the  teacher  tells 
some  little  story  which  the  movements  illustrate,  as,  the 
balls  represent  birds  picking  up  crumbs  from  the  ground 
and  carrying  them  to  their  young;  or  they  are  the  cargo 
of  a  boat  and  the  children  are  handing  them  up  to  men 
in  a  ship,  etc. 

Then  a  song  is  sung  in  which  the  balls  are  spoken  of 
as  birds,  cargoes,  etc. 


The  balls  having  been  given  out  as  usual  the  teacher 
finds  that  here  is,  for  example,  a  red  one.    She  asks  how 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  107 

many  have  balls  of  the  same  color,  who  can  point  out 
anything  of  the  same  color  in  the  room,  name  things  of 
the  same  color  in  the  room,  name  things  of  the  same 
color  out  of  doors,  at  home,  etc.  A  timid  child  is  asked 
to  show  his  ball  and  the  same  kind  of  work  is  taken 
with  it.  After  a  consideration  of  color,  number  is  con- 
sidered by  having  the  balls  of  different  colors  counted 
as  held;  then  all  of  one  color,  e.g.,  green,  placed  in  a 
circle  and  counted ;  a  circle  of  another  color  placed  out- 
side of  that  and  counted  ;  then  both  counted,  etc. 

The  balls  are  placed  and  retaken  in  perfect  order,  and 
songs  and  stories  accompany  the  exercise  as  before. 


The  children  stand  side  by  side  in  the  circle  and  at 
the  word  of  command  or  song,  as, 

'The  soft  ball  loves  to  wander 
From  one  hand  to  another,' 

pass  the  ball  from  the  right  hand  to  the  left  and  from 
the  left  to  the  next  child's  right,  thus  each  receiving  the 
ball  of  each  and  passing  it  on.  The  ball  may  be  imagin- 
ed to  be  other  things,  as  a  child,  a  bird,  etc.  In  which 
case  the  song  changes  to  The  little  child  loves  to  wan- 
der,' etc. 

In  regard  to  exercises  it  is  to  be  understood  that  both 
the  teacher  and  the  pupils  are  to  frequently  invent  them, 
governed  by  the  following  thoughts : — 

1.  The  various  parte  of  the  body,  both  singly  and 
in  combination  are  to  be  exercised  in  a  gentle,  graceful 
manner  without  undue  fatigue. 


108  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

2.  The  appropriate  moral  and  intellectual  faculties 
are  to  be  dalled  into  use  and  trained  by  arousing  the  dor- 
mant ones  and  directing  any  that  are  taking  the  wrong 
direction  into  right  channels. 

3.  The  exercises  are  to  be  linked  to  previous  work 
in  order  to  bring  in  the  element  of  association. 

What  advantages  arise  from  having  the  pupils  invent  exer- 
cises ? 

This  gift  may  form  the  ground  work  of  exercises  in 
language  upon  various  topics. 

For  example,  the  children  may  be  led  to  express  freely 
the  qualities,  actions,  and  changes  of  position  of  the 
ball ;  to  imagine  the  ball  with  its  string  to  be  a  pendu- 
lum and  enter  into  a  conversation  concerning  clocks; 
to  suppose  it  to  be  a  potato  or  apple,  and  themselves  to 
peel,  cook  and  place  it  in  a  plate  upon  the  table,  after 
which  they  converse  concerning  manner  of  holdinsj  the 
spoon,  knife  and  fork,  and  other  points  in  table  eti- 
quette. 

Again,  the  ball  may  be  imagined  to  be  a  grape,  cur- 
rant, cherry,  etc.,  and  may  thus  open  the  way  to  a  con- 
versation about  the  vine,  bush,  or  tree ;  or  it  may  be 
imagined  to  be  a  seed  in  the  ground,  and  the  sprouting 
of  seeds  may  be  talked  about.  These  topics  would 
naturally  lead  to  conversation  and  songs  concerning  the 
gardener  and  his  work,  Spring,  Autumn,  etc. 

The  ball  may  also  be  imagined  to  be  a  bird  and  held 
in  the  hand  as  in  a  nest.  This  may  lead  to  a  conversa- 
tion about  birds,  their  homes,  habits,  etc.     Or  the  ball 


THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  109 

may  be  thought  to  be  an  egg  in  the  nest,  hatched,  and 
the  young  bird  cared  for  and  taught  to  fly,  etc.  Thus 
the  children  acquire  a  real  interest  in  animals  and  their 
habits — the  true  foundation  of  a  reverence  for  life  and 
living  things. 

How  may  this  last  theme  tend  to  develop  reverence  for  the 
Creator  and  His  highest  creation — man  ? 

It  is  to  be  understood  that  the  range  of  subjects  suit- 
able for  language  exercises  is  by  no  means  limited  to 
these  suggested,  nor  to  this  gift.  The  aim  is  to  show 
that  this — the  most  simple  gift — is,  in  the  hands  of  a 
thoughtful,  sympathetic  teacher,  fitted  to  cultivate  the 
hand,  senses,  and  voice;  and  to  call  forth  the  idea  of 
number,  language,  the  power  of  imitation,  sympathy, 
politeness  and  reverence. 

Among  rhymes  suitable  may  be  given  the  following : 

1.  For  the  directions — 

"Look !  the  balls  swing  to  and  fro  ; 
Ne'er  too  fast,  ne'er  too  slow, 
Swing  to  left,  swing  to  right, 
Swing  together  in  our  sight." 

2.  For  plants— 

"Winter's  storms  and  frosts  are  over, 
Trills  the  lark  at  early  dawn ; 
Guelder-roses,  springtime's  snowballs, 
Scatter  snow-flakes  on  the  lawn." 

3.  In  connection  with  themes  to  awaken  reverence — 

•'We  sow  the  seed  in  early  spring, 
When  the  rain  comes  mild  and  sweet; 
It  lies  safe  hid  from  the  chilly  rime, 
From  the  stormy  wind  and  sleet. 


110  THE   THEORY  OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

"It  grows,  and  it  spreads  its  tiny  roots, 

In  the  earth  so  cool  and  light ; 

But  ever  its  buds  and  leaves  look  up 

To  the  sunshine,  warm  and  bright. 

"So  does  our  Maker  plant  us  here 

In  the  world,  to  live  and  grow  ; 

Let  us,  like  the  flower,  look  up  to  heaven. 

Though  set  in  the  earth  below." 

How  does  this  gift  supplement  and  react  upon  the  family  and 
its  training  ?  How  does  it  prepare  for  the  school  ?  In  what 
work  of  the  primary  school  may  this  gift  be  used  to  advantage? 

SECOND  GIFT. 

The  central  thought  in  the  first  gift  is  color ;  in  the 
second,  form. 

Is  this  in  accord  with  natural  development  ? 

The  principle  that  there  is  to  be  no  abrupt  transition, 
but  a  gradual  procedure  from  simple  to  complex,  pre- 
pares the  mind  for  the  second  gift — the  wooden  ball, 
cylinder,  and  cube — in  which  is  exemplified  clearly  an 
object,  its  opposite  and  their  mediative. 

What  training  may  be  gained  in  taking  out  the  gift  ?  Deter- 
mine a  set  of  directions. 

The  first  work  in  the  second  gift  is  the  comparison  of 
the  hard  with  the  soft  ball.  In  this  comparison  the 
children  learn  the  meaning  of  such  words  as  light,  heavy, 
hard,  soft,  rough,  smooth,  etc.  As  to  sound,  the  hard 
ball  will  be  found  to  produce  a  sharp  sound,  when  it 
strikes  upon  the  table ;  this  will  suggest  to  the  imagina- 
tion a  hammer,  or  some  other  solid  tool,  and  may  lead 
to  imitation  of,  and  conversation  concerning  the  work  of 
blacksmiths,  tinsmiths,  carpenters,  etc.     The  children 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  Ill 

should  be  led  to  see  what  the  soft  ball  is  best  fitted  to  do 
and  what  the  hard,  together  with  the  reason. 

After  a  comparison  of  the  two  balls,  the  study  of  the 
cube  is  commenced.  It  is  found  that  while  the  ball 
moves  readily,  the  cube  does  not,  and  this  fact  is  fixed 
by  some  such  expression  as  the  following  :— 

"  This  is  the  ball  that  runs  away, 
This  is  the  cube  sitting  still  all  day." 

The  children  are  then  led  to  point  to  the  difierent 
faces,  edges  and  corners  and  to  give  them  their  names; 
they  are  then  counted,  after  which  the  ball  and  cube  are 
compared  in  respect  to  these  characteristics.  The  edges 
and  faces  are  then  measured  and  the  result  fixed  in  the 
mind.  In  this  work  the  children  become  familiar  with 
the  terms  height,  breadth,  and  depth. 

At  all  stages  the  idea  being  considered  is  viewed  in 
connection  with  familiar  objects,  as  when  speaking  of 
points  (corners)  and  lines,  they  are  to  be  pointed  out  in 
the  room,  in  nature,  etc. 

The  cylinder  is  then  to  be  compared  with  the  cube 
and  the  ball. 

What  points  of  likeness  and  difference  will  be  found  ? 
What  work  may  be  done  with  the  axes  and  diameters  of  the 
ball,  cube  and  cylinder?    How? 

In  this  gift  the  child  gains  some  elementary  concep- 
tions in  regard  to  motion  and  resulting  appearance. 

In  what  way  may  the  gift  lead  to  this  ? 

As  in  gift  one  the  imagination  is  called  into  exercise 
at  every  stage.    Thus,  the  cube  may  be  imagined  to  rep- 


112  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

resent  a  house,  table,  sheep,  etc.;  the  cylinder,  a  roller, 
a  man,  etc.;  the  ball,  a  wagon,  train,  mouse,  etc. 

The  cube  with  a  stick  placed  upright  in  it,  may  repre- 
sent a  fort  with  a  flagstaff,  and  supplying  a  paper  flag 
the  children  are  led  to  converse  concerning  a  fort,  its 
use,  and  those  who  live  in  it;  a  cube  with  a  stick  in  it 
may  also  form  a  carpenter's  mallet,  and  thus  lead  to  a 
familiar  talk  about  the  carpenter,  his  tools  and  his  work. 
A  song  of  the  carpenter  and  his  useful  labors  may  be 
sung,  and  his  motions  imitated. 

The  imaginative  exercises  of  this  gift  may  be  much 
extended.     The  progress  of  the  child  is  as  follows : 

1.  He  observes  places  and  persons  present. 

2.  He  becomes  able  to  think  and  speak  of  them 
when  they  are  absent. 

3.  By  means  of  what  experience  has  shown  him  of 
distance  and  persons,  he  is  able  to  think  of  places  and 
persons  that  he  has  never  seen. 

The  construction  work  of  gift  two  should  give  this 
natural  growth  such  exercise  as  shall  systematically  de- 
velop the  powers  of  mind,  and  at  the  same  time  give  the 
child  valuable  physical  and  moral  truths. 

Exercises  such  as  the  following  will  tend  to  do  this: — 
A  short  stick  with  a  paper  sail  converts  the  cube  into 
a  boat,  and  a  sail  may  be  taken  along  a  river,  thus 
furnishing  the  occasion  for  a  conversation  upon  the 
river,  its  waters,  its  banks,  fish,  etc.;  or  the  boat  may  be 
made  larger,  called  a  ship,  an^  launched  for  an  ocean 
voyage.  The  imaginary  voyage  will  form  the  ground 
for  talks  on  storms,  waves,  sea-birds,  icebergs,  etc. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  113 

Voyages  maybe  made  to  Holland,  Spain,  Brazil,  Cuba, 
etc.,  obtaining  from  each  its  principal  productions.  The 
relative  distances  to  these  regions  is  to  be  indicated  by 
the  time  occupied;  and  the  cargoes  form  subjects  for  object 
and  language  lessons. 

After  the  children  have  become  familiar  with  the  idea 
of  journeys  and  voyages  to  distant  places,  by  connection 
with  objects  in  common  use,  they  may  be  led  to  picture 
these  places  in  imagination,  and  thus  lay  the  foundation 
of  geography.  The  ship's  voyage  along  a  coast  may  be 
imagined,  the  character  of  the  coast  pictured,  and  the 
towns  described  and  named.  Pictures  from  geographies 
and  periodicals  will  aid  much  in  this  work.  The  imag- 
inary track  of  the  ship  along  a  coast  may  be  traced  upon 
the  board,  or  in  moulding  sand;  by  such  work  the  out- 
line of  a  region  may  be  made  familiar,  and  the  use  of  a 
map  learned.  This  work  should  be  accompanied  by 
lessons  on  place,  distance,  measurement,  etc. 

Several  children  may  combine  to  build  with  their 
gifts.  A  square  may  be  formed  of  four  cubes ;  on  these 
two  or  more  cylinders  may  be  placed  to  represent  a  fac- 
tory chimney,  monument,  telegraph-post,  light-house, 
etc.  A  conversation  is  thus  prompted  concerning  those 
who  are  employed  at  such  places,  what  they  do  for  us, 
what  we  should  do  for  them,  etc. 

How  does  this  gift  supplement  and  react  upon  the  family  and 
its  training. 
How  does  it  prepare  for  school  ? 

In  what  work  of  the  primary  school  may  this  gift  be  used  to 
advantage  ? . 


114  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

THIRD    GIFT. 

The  purpose  of  the  third  gift  is  to  train  the  mind  and 
the  hand  by  means  of  exercises  in  form,  number,  con- 
struction and  design.  The  gift  is  a  two-inch  cube, 
divided  once  each  way  so  as  to  form  eight  one-inch 
cubes.  This  gift  forms  a  contrast  to  the  second  gift,  in- 
asmuch as  in  this  one  the  whole  is  divided,  while  in  the 
other  the  cube,  sphere  and  cylinder  are,  each,  undivided 
wholes.  The  connecting  link,  or  mediative,  is  the  cube- 
shape  of  the  third  gift. 

At  about  three  years  of  age  a  child  shows  a  wish  to 
ascertain  the  cause  of  things.  It  attempts  to  take  ob- 
jects to  pieces,  and  to  alter  their  form  in  order  to  dis- 
cover new  peculiarities  in,  and  fresh  applications  for 
them.  After  examining  their  exterior  forms,  it  wants  to 
see  their  interior,  and  by  putting  the  parts  together, 
either  to  restore  them  to  their  original  form,  or  to  form 
something  new.  This  is  the  reason  why  a  child  of  that 
age  is  in  the  habit  of  breaking  to  pieces  its  toys,  and  of 
preferring  to  play  with  the  pieces  rather  than  with  the 
whole  toy ;  and  for  that  reason  the  divided  cube  is  pro- 
vided at  this  stage,  since,  while  it  satisfies  this  desire,  it 
is  not  easily  destroyed. 

With  this,  and  with  the  succeeding  gifts,  forms  of 
knowledge,  forms  of  utility  or  life,  and  forms  of  art  or 
beauty,  are  produced.  Forms  of  knowledge  are  the 
mathematical  forms.  Forms  of  utility  are  those  used  in 
real  life,  as  the  chair,  table,  sofa,  bedstead,  etc.  Forms 
of  art  are  creations  of  the  imagination,  including  espe^ 


THE   THEORY  OF  THE   SCHOOL.  115 

cially  symmetrical  forms,  such  as  architectural  designs, 
designs  for  carpets,  wall  paper,  etc. 

As  in  the  second  gift  the  taking  out  and  the  replacing 
of  the  gift  form  exercises  of  great  value. 

Prepare  directions  for  taking  out,  and  for  replacing. 
What  is  to  be  gained  by  such  exercises  ? 

The  work  with  the  third  gift  consists  mainly  of  exer- 
cises in : 

Comparison  in  form. 

Number. 

Construction  or  building. 

Designing. 

The  first  exercise  is  to  examine,  measure,  describe  and 
name  the  gift.  All  points  of  likeness  and  difference  as 
compared  with  the  second  gift  are  then  discovered  and 
stated. 

The  work  in  number  is  mainly  counting.  It  is  taken 
somewhat  as  follows : 

1.  There  being  ten  gifts  upon  the  table  the  pupils 
first  touch  and  count  all  the  faces,  corners,  and  edges  of 
each  cube;  and  secondly,  count  the  cubes  thus :  one,  two, 
three,  etc.,  to  ten ;  and  ten,  nine,  eight,  etc.,  to  one,  each 
X^upil  touching  and  counting  his  own. 

2.  The  left  half  is  drawn  away  from  the  right  half 
by  each  pupil,  and  the  parts  are  compared  as  to  size  and 
each  part  compared  with  the  whole  as  to  size  and  num- 
ber.    The  term  half  is  then  applied. 

3.  The  halves  are  counted  to  twenty  and  then  back 
to  one,  by  ones  and  by  twos,  as  one  half,  two  halves, 
three  halves,  etc.;  twenty  halves,  nineteen  halves,  etc. 


114  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

THIRD    GIFT. 

The  purpose  of  the  third  gift  is  to  train  the  mind  and 
the  hand  by  means  of  exercises  in  form,  number,  con- 
struction and  design.  The  gift  is  a  two-inch  cube, 
divided  once  each  way  so  as  to  form  eight  one-inch 
cubes.  This  gift  forms  a  contrast  to  the  second  gift,  in- 
asmuch as  in  this  one  the  whole  is  divided,  while  in  the 
other  the  cube,  sphere  and  cylinder  are,  each,  undivided 
wholes.  The  connecting  link,  or  mediative,  is  the  cube- 
shape  of  the  third  gift. 

At  about  three  years  of  age  a  child  shows  a  wish  to 
ascertain  the  cause  of  things.  It  attempts  to  take  ob- 
jects to  pieces,  and  to  alter  their  form  in  order  to  dis- 
cover new  peculiarities  in,  and  fresh  applications  for 
them.  After  examining  their  exterior  forms,  it  wants  to 
see  their  interior,  and  by  putting  the  parts  together, 
either  to  restore  them  to  their  original  form,  or  to  form 
something  new.  This  is  the  reason  why  a  child  of  that 
age  is  in  the  habit  of  breaking  to  pieces  its  toys,  and  of 
preferring  to  play  with  the  pieces  rather  than  with  the 
whole  toy ;  and  for  that  reason  the  divided  cube  is  pro- 
vided at  this  stage,  since,  while  it  satisfies  this  desire,  it 
is  not  easily  destroyed. 

With  this,  and  with  the  succeeding  gifts,  forms  of 
knowledge,  forms  of  utility  or  life,  and  forms  of  art  or 
beauty,  are  produced.  Forms  of  knowledge  are  the 
mathematical  forms.  Forms  of  utility  are  those  used  in 
real  life,  as  the  chair,  table,  sofa,  bedstead,  etc.  Forms 
of  art  are  creations  of  the  imagination,  including  espe- 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  115 

cially  symmetrical  forms,  such  as  architectural  designs, 
designs  for  carpets,  wall  paper,  etc. 

As  in  the  second  gift  the  taking  out  and  the  replacing 
of  the  gift  form  exercises  of  great  value. 

Prepare  directions  for  taking  out,  and  for  replacing. 
What  is  to  be  gained  by  such  exercises  ? 

The  work  with  the  third  gift  consists  mainly  of  exer- 
cises in : 

Comparison  in  form. 

Number. 

Construction  or  building. 

Designing. 

The  first  exercise  is  to  examine,  measure,  describe  and 
name  the  gift.  All  points  of  likeness  and  difference  as 
compared  with  the  second  gift  are  then  discovered  and 
stated. 

The  work  in  number  is  mainly  counting.  It  is  taken 
somewhat  as  follows : 

1.  There  being  ten  gifts  upon  the  table  the  pupils 
first  touch  and  count  all  the  faces,  corners,  and  edges  of 
each  cube;  and  secondly,  count  the  cubes  thus :  one,  two, 
three,  etc.,  to  ten ;  and  ten,  nine,  eight,  etc.,  to  one,  each 
pupil  touching  and  counting  his  own. 

2.  The  left  half  is  drawn  away  from  the  right  half 
by  each  pupil,  and  the  parts  are  compared  as  to  size  and 
each  part  compared  with  the  whole  as  to  size  and  num- 
ber.    The  term  half  is  then  applied. 

3.  The  halves  are  counted  to  twenty  and  then  back 
to  one,  by  ones  and  by  twos,  as  one  half,  two  halves, 
three  halves,  etc.;  twenty  halves,  nineteen  halves,  etc. 


116  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCIIOOl^. 

4.  Work  as  in  ^'3,"  modified  by  the  removal  of  the 
first  half.  Thus,  one,  three,  five,  etc  :  nineteen,  seven- 
teen, fifteen,  etc. 

5.  The  midway  point  is  made  the  starting  point, 
and  the  number  of  ones  and  of  twos,  from  that  point  to 
either  end  is  found  by  counting. 

The  cube  is  then  divided  into  fourths,  and  the  five 
kinds  of  work  taken  with  fourths  ;  after  which  the 
division  is  made  into  eighths,  and  the  division  followed 
be  similar  exercises. 

Indicate  the  points  of  knowledge  that  the  children  will  gain 
from  these  exercises.  The  kind  of  discipline.  How  may  this 
gift  be  used  in  connection  with  square  and  cubic  measure  ? 

The  work  in  construction,  or  building,  is  to  be  in  con- 
formity to  certain  rules  : 

1.  Each  construction  must  be  gradually  developed 
from  the  cube. 

2.  In  each  building  all  of  the  cubes  must  be  used. 

3.  Every  structure  that  can  be  produced  by  the  re- 
moval of  one  cube,  is  to  be  constructed  before  one  is 
built  requiring  two  cubes,  etc. 

4.  Each  structure  must  be  gradually  re-formed  into 
the  cube. 

These  rules  are  based  on  what  principle  of  education  ? 

There  are  three  kinds  of  work.  One  in  which  train- 
ing is  given  to  the  powers  of  observation,  imitation, 
imagination  and  language.  Another  in  which  training 
is  given  to  the  powers  of  memory,  imagination  and 
language.  A  third,  in  which  the  main  thought  is  the 
development  of  the  social  nature. 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  117 

In  the  first  case,  the  teacher  or  a  pupil  builds  a  struc- 
ture, the  pupils  imitate,  and  a  conversation  is  had  con- 
cerning it. 

In  the  second  case,  the  teacher  names  the  structure, 
the  pupils  make  it  and  the  conversation  follows. 

In  the  third  kind  of  work  a  child  is  allowed  to  build 
as  he  chooses,  and  often  requires  more  than  his  eight 
cubes.  When  this  occurs,  the  other  children  are  led  to 
assist  by  lending  the  cubes  required,  while  the  one 
building  is  taught  to  accept  the  help  gracefully,  to  return 
the  cubes  as  soon  as  he  is  done  with  them,  and  to  be 
ready  to  assist  others  in  like  cases. 

In  another  form  of  this  exercise,  one  child  is  the  archi- 
tect, while  the  rest  act  as  laborers. 

What  things  are  gained  by  these  last  exercises? 

In  designing,  the  same  rules  apply  as  in  building. 
Designing  differs  from  building  in  that  in  the  first 
the  cubes  form  only  one  layer  on  the  table,  making  pat- 
terns, or  forms  of  symmetry.  Everything  is  developed 
from  the  square,  and  all  designs  that  can  be  made  by 
the  moving  of  the  upper  square  are  completed  before  the 
lower  square  is  moved.  Each  move  is  as  slight  as  pos- 
sible, and  always  by  exact  measurement. 

The  principle  of  teaching  involved  in  these  rules  of  designing? 

How  may  music  be  taught  by  means  of  the  third  gift? 

How  does  this  gift  supplement  and  react  upon  the  family 
and  its  training? 

How  does  it  prepare  for  the  school? 

In  what  work  of  the  primary  school  may  this  gift  be  used  to 
advantage? 


118  THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

FOURTH  GIFT. 

This  gift,  like  the  third,  is  a  box  containing  a  cube 
divided  into  eight  equal  parts.  The  parts  are  not  cubes, 
however,  but  are  oblongs,  each  measuring  two  inches  in 
length,  one  in  width,  and  one- half  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness. 

The  difference  between  this  gift  and  the  previous  one 
lies  in  the  jorm  of  the  parts,  and  the  likeness  in  the 
number  of  the  parts. 

Indicate  the  diflference. 

The  mediative  of  gifts  three  and  four  is  seen  when 
two  cubes  of  the  third  gift  are  placed  together  so  as  to 
form  a  rectangle ;  the  rectangle  is  equal  in  length  and 
width  to  the  tablet  of  the  fourth  gift,  and  in  width  and 
height  to  a  cube  of  the  third.  The  mediative  also  exists 
in  either  gift — both  forming  when  wholes,  cubes  of  equal 
size. 

The  work  with  this  gift  is  similar  to  that  of  gift  three : 
comparison,  number,  building,  and  design. 

The  same  exercises  are  taken  in  number  as  in  the 
previous  gift,  and  the  fractional  names,  half,  quarter, 
eighth,  are  applied  to  the  new  divisions  of  the  cube. 

What  is  the  effect  of  continuing  similar  exercises  with  dif- 
ferent forms  ? 

The  forms  in  building  are,  as  before,  those  of  knowl- 
edge, utility,  and  beauty.  The  forms  differ  consider- 
ably from  those  produced  with  the  cubes,  and  give  rise 
to  conversations  concerning  a  greater  range  of  subjects. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  119 

For  instance,  two  or  more  slabs  leaning  against  each 
other  form  a  tent. 

This  introduces  a  conversation  about  those  who  live 
in  tents,  why  they  do  so,  where  the  tent  is  usually 
pitched,  etc.  The  children  may,  then,  in  imagination, 
travel  with  some  Arab  family ;  or  have  told  to  them  the 
story  of  Gemila,  the  child  of  the  Desert — one  of  The 
Seven  Little  Sisters ;  or  consider  some  early  Bible  story. 

Three  or  four  slabs  will  form  a  cavern,  and  thus  lead 
to  a  talk  concerning  caves.  If  the  contents  of  several 
boxes  are  combined,  buildings  of  increased  size  and 
complexity  may  be  produced.  Thus,  a  farm  with  its 
yards,  stables,  cow  sheds,  barn,  carriage  house,  etc.,  may 
be  represented.  The  name  and  use  of  each  part,  the 
habits  of  the  animals,  etc.,  are  considered.  A  shop  or 
manufactory  may  be  treated  in  the  same  manner.  If 
each  tablet  is  made  to  represent  a  store  or  shop,  a  street 
may  be  represented,  and  the  children  may  be  led  to 
converse  as  to  the  contents  of  the  stores,  their  prices 
and  uses,  where  and  how  obtained,  etc. 

In  designing  the  oblongs  are  laid  flat  and  symmetri- 
cally. The  rules  for  designing,  as  well  as  those  for  build- 
ing, are  the  same  as  for  gift  three.  The  peculiar  powers 
of  the  oblong,  as  distinct  from  those  of  the  cube,  arise 
from  the  fact  that  it  has  narrow  sides  and  ends,  and 
that  it  may  be  made  to  stand  on  either  of  these.  If 
upon  the  narrow  edge  of  one  tablet,  another  is  put  upon 
its  broad  side,  the  law  of  equilibium  is  illustrated ;  if 
all  of  the  tablets  are  arranged  in  a  row,  with  a 
small  space  between  each  two,  so  that  should  the  first 


120  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

one  fall,  all  the  others  will  also,  the  law  of  transmitted 
motion  is  shown. 

This  gift  affords  an  admirable  opportunity  for  the 
legitimate  exercise  of  the  child's  natural  propensity  to 
knock  over  or  down  its  play  things  and  buildings. 
This  propensity  is,  of  course,  to  be  kept  within  bounds, 
and  regulated ;  but  within  its  bounds  it  is  to  have  due 
exercise. 

The  act  of  upsetting  buildings  and  playthings  may  involve 
what  different  feelings  ? 

How  should  the  propensity  be  treated  ? 

How  does  this  gift  supplement  and  react  upon  the  family 
and  its  work  ? 

How  does  it  prepare  for  the  school  ? 

In  what  work  of  the  primary  school  may  this  gift  be  used  to 
advantage  ? 

FIFTH  GIFT. 

All  the  gifts,  as  previously  indicated,  develop  from 
one  another.  The  fifth  gift,  like  the  third  and  fourth,  is 
a  cube ;  but  for  convenience  it  is  larger  than  the  pre- 
vious ones.  The  cube  Of  the  third  gift  is  divided'once 
in  all  directions.  The  natural  progress  is  from  1  to  2 ; 
hence,  the  cube  of  the  fifth  gift  is  divided  twice  in  each 
direction.  The  result  is  twenty-seven  cubes  of  equal 
size.  But  as  this  division  would  only  have  multiplied, 
not  diversified  the  occupation  material,  it  was  deemed 
best  to  introduce  a  new  element,  by  subdividing  some 
of  the  cubes  in  a  slanting  direction.  Heretofore,  only 
perpendicular  and  horizontal  lines  have  been  used. 
These  opposites,  however,  require  their  meditative;  and 
this  meditative  has  already  appeared  in  the  forms  of  life 


THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  121 

and  of  beauty  in  the  two  previous  gifts,  when  side  and 
edge  were  made  to  touch. 

The  slanting  direction  appearing  in  that  manner  inci- 
dentally, becomes  here  permanent  by  introducing  the 
oblique  line  by  a  division  of  the  cube.  Three  of  the 
small  cubes  of  the  fifth  gift  are  divided  into  half  cubes, 
and  three  into  quarter  cubes,  so  that  there  are  twenty- 
one  whole  cubes,  six  half  cubes,  and  twelve  quarter 
cubes — constituting  a  gift  of  thirty-nine  pieces. 

The  first  practice  with  this  gift  is  like  that  with  the 
others  introduced  thus  far.  The  gift  is  measured.  It  is 
then  compared  and  contrasted  with  the  other  gifts  in  all 
points.  The  children  then  deal  with  number  in  con- 
nection with  it — the  gift  obviously  affording  a  wide 
field. 

By  these  exercises  the  child  becomes  familiar  enough 
with  the  gift  to  employ  it  for  the  production  of  various 
forms  of  use,  beauty  and  knowledge,  in  building  and 
design. 

The  main  condition  in  these  last  exercises,  as  before 
indicated,  is  that  for  each  representation  the  whole  of  the 
material  is  to  be  employed;  not  that  only  one  object 
should  be  built,  but  that  having  built  one  structure,  the 
remaining  pieces,  if  any,  are  to  be  used  so  as  to  represent 
accessory  parts.  The  child  should  be  constantly  re- 
minded that  nothing  belonging  to  a  whole  can  be  super- 
fluous. Nor  should  it  be  forgotten  that  nothing  should 
be  destroyed,  but  everthing  produced  by  rebuilding.  It 
is  advisable  to  always  start  from  the  figure  of  the  cube. 


122  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

How  does  the  gift  supplement  and  react  upon  the  family  and 
its  work  ? 

How  does  it  prepare  for  the  school  ? 

In  what  work  of  the  primary  school  may  this  gift  he  used  to 
advantage  ? 

SIXTH  GIFT. 

As  the  third  and  fifth  gifts  form  an  especial  sequence 
of  development,  so  the  fourth  and  sixth  are  intimately 
connected  with  each  other.  The  sixth  gift  contains 
twenty-seven  oblong  blocks  of  the  same  dimensions  as 
those  of  the  fourth  gift.  Of  these  twenty-seven  blocks, 
eighteen  are  whole,  six  are  (iivided  breadthwise,  each 
into  two  squares,  and  three  by  a  lengthwise  cut,  each 
in  two  columns,  altogether  making  thirty-six  pieces. 

This  gift  differs  from  the  fifth  in  the  shape  and  in  the 
number  of  the  parts,  and  in  being  capable  of  being  made 
into  a  greater  variety ^^of  forms  of  perception,  of  utility, 
and  of  beauty  or  art.  The  sixth  gift  completes  the 
groups  of  bodies^  the  succeeding  mediums  of  occupation 
representing  surface,  line  and  point. 

The  succeeding  exercises  are:  Pattern -laying  with 
wooden  planes;  paper -folding;  paper-cutting;  lath-plat- 
ting; stick-laying;  ring-laying;  thread-laying;  construc- 
tion with  sticks  and  softened  peas;  paper-plaiting; 
paper-pricking  (not  much  used);  stitching;  drawing; 
coloring ;  modelling  in  clay. 

The  relation  existing  between  the  kindergarten  and 
other  education  is  shown  by  the  following  diagram, 
adapted  from  the  table  by  A.  De  Portugall : 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


123 


Third  funda- 
mental form— 
The  Cylinder. 


S^  II  s? 

i£  II  ll 

-S    oc  ESs 

^3      Q,?:  0,»5 

^  -      oq  JQ  o 


!  *<  -• 


§    I    5 

C      •«       •< 


MAthematics 

Science 
Philosophy 


Second  fundamental  form- 
The  Cube. 


o 


u.  a  ft>  -!  £3* 


I' 


?  =  3  5-pc5:o<?'< 


S  3  S  =  §  3  2. 

ij;;  -i3i; -iw  o 
2  as  a:  oT^ 


•  3. » r 


Fine  Arts 
I  I 

Philosophy 


First  fundamental 
form— The  Ball. 


^1 


Philosophy 


Hannonious  Development. 


'^i^^*' 


CHAPTER  VI. 


THE  SCHOOL. 


••What  you  would  put  into  the  life  of  a  nation  you  must  first  put  into  the 
schools." 

"What  constitutes  a  State?  Men,  high-minded  men ;  men  who  their  duties 
know,  and  knowing  dare  perform." 


THE  GROUND  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  * 

<g|HE  state  may  be  viewed  as  including  the  family 
^  and  civil  society.  It  may  be  viewed  as  a  means 
whereby  the  family  and  civil  society  are  possible ;  as  the 
agent  which  creates,  defines  and  protects  them.  But 
the  existence  of  these  institutions  in  any  degree  of  per- 
fection, is  made  possible  to  the  people  through  the 
training  given  in  obtaining  possession  of  literature,  sci- 
ence and  art. 

Take  from  the  people  the  training  given  in  obtaining 
knowledge  of  the  common  branches  and  they  would 
be  not  merely  children,  but  barbarians.  All  the  evi- 
dences of  civilized  life  would  be  as  difficult  to  interpret 
as  were  the  ships  of  Columbus  to  the  Aborigines. 

*  WM.  A.  JONES. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  125 

The  necessity  for  universal  education  may  be  seen 
from  the  following  suppositions  : 

1.  Deprive  one  of  his  skill  obtained  in  gaining  a 
knowledge  of  geography,  and  of  his  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject— the  science  which  frees  him  from  his  limits  in 
space ;  the  science  which  teaches  him  a  rational  con- 
ception of  the  earth  and  his  relations  to  it;  deprive 
him  of  this  skill  and  knowledge,  and  the  earth  becomes 
to  him  that  extent  of  territory  which  he  has  actually 
perceived. 

2.  Take  from  one  his  development  obtained  through 
a  knx)wledge  of  history,  the  subject  that  frees  him  from 
his  limitations  in  time,  and  reveals  to  him  the  struggle 
of  the  human  soul  towards  its  goal — freedom — the  sub- 
ject which  reveals  to  him  the  antecedent  events  which 
he  has  unconsciously  taken  up  into  his  own  life  ;  take 
from  one  the  result  of  this  knowledge  and  he  is  limited 
to  the  events  of  his  own  narrow  observation. 

3.  Take  from  one  his  discipline  arising  from  the 
effort  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  arithmetic^  and  the  know- 
ledge, necessarily  thus  acquired,  and  it  is  impossible  for 
him  to  effect  exchanges  except  in  a  sensuous  equivalent ; 
such  a  thing  as  a  note  of  hand,  a  bank  note,  or  a  bill  of 
exchange  is  an  incomprehensible  object  to  him. 

4.  Take  from  one  his  ability  to  read,  and  he  is  lim- 
ited to  the  narrow  range  of  his  own  experience. 

The  rich  treasures  of  the  past  are  his  only  who  takes 
possession  of  them. 

From  these  few  statements  it  may  be  seen  that  the 
very  existence  of  a  highly  civilized  state  is  conditioned 
on  the  universal  education  of  the  people. 


126  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

Universal  education  in  the  wide  sense  in  which  it  has 
been  defined,  is  the  means  by  which  the  people  may 
attain  their  destiny — freedom. 

The  state  is  created  as  a  special  institution  whose  end 
is  "to  ascertain,  define,  and  enforce  what  is  right  and  to 
prohibit  what  is  wrong." 

The  state  in  the  exercise  of  its  functions  creates  the 
school  as  a  necessary  means  for  the  education  of  all :  for 
giving  that  education,  intellectual  and  moral,  which 
will  enable  the  individual  to  join  himself  to  the  various 
parts  of  the  social  organization,  and  to  participate  in 
the  substantial  enjoyment  of  the  freedom  which  they 
afibrd. 

The  ground  of  the  school  is  the  necessity  of  the  people 
for  training  by  employing  the  elements  of  learning  as 
an  exercise-ground.  The  state  creates  the  school  as  a 
means  to  meet  this  necessity — a  necessity  which  no 
other  institution  can  meet. 

THE  IDEA  OF  THE  SCHOOL, 
This  will  be  presented  under  form  and  purpose. 

FORM. 

As  an  institution  created  by  the  state,  the  school  must 
have  a  legal  form.  This  form  is  delineated  in  the  whole 
body  of  school  laws  of  the  state. 

1.  The  form  of  the  school  in  Indiana  is  called  "The 
School  System  of  Indiana." 

{(1)  Ungraded  Schools. 
(2)  Township  Graded  Schools. 
(3)  Town  and  City  Schools. 
(4)  Indiana  State  Normal  School. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


127 


.   XT  ,       ,^c    .  f   (1)  State  University. 

*.  University  System.     |   '  ' 


(2)  Purdue  University. 


c.  Special  Schools. 


(1)  Charitable 


(2)  Refonnatory 


(«)  School  for  the  Blind. 
(3)  School  for  Deaf  Mutes. 
{c)  Soldiers'  Orphans'  Home. 
(«)  Girls'  Reformatory. 
(*)  Boys'  Reformatory. 


2.  The  common  school  system  is  administered  by 
the  following  officers : 

(1)  state  Superintendent  of  Public  Instuction. 
(a)  Governor  of  State. 
(3)  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction. 

(2)  Board  of        J  (^)  Presidents   of  State    University, 
Eduction  State  Normal  and  Purdue  Uni- 
versity. 

(</)  Superintendents  of  schoolsof  the 
three  largest  cities  of  the  State. 


I.  General  Officers. 


t.  Special  Officers. 


(1)  In  Ungraded 

Schools. 


(2)  In  Township  Grad- 
ed Schools. 


{a)  County  Superintendent. 
(3)  County  Board  of  Educa- 

cation. 
(c)  Township  Trustee. 
{d)  Director. 
(*)  Teacher. 


{; 


)  Township  Trustee. 
{i)  Teacher. 


(3)  In  City  and  Town 
Schools. 


(a)  Board  of  Trustees. 
(*)  City  Superintendent, 
(f)  Teachers, 


(4)  In  State  Normal 
School 


(6)  In  State  University 


(6)  In  Purdue  Unlver 
sity. 


{i; 


)  Board  of  Trustees. 
{i)  President  and  Faculty. 


)  Board  of  Trustees. 
(*)  President  and  Faculty. 


)  Board  of  Trustees. 
(*)  President  and  Faculty. 


128  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

STATE  SUPERINTENDENT. 

1.  Election :     At  a  general  election  by  the  qualified 
voters  of  the  state. 

2.  Time  of  taking  office :     Fifteenth  day  of  March 
succeeding  his  election. 

3.  Term  of  office :     Two  years. 

4.  Office  how  filled  in  case  of  death,  resignation,  or 
removal :    By  appointment  by  the  Governor  of  the  State. 

5.  Duties  of  office : 

a.  Takes  general  charge  of  the  schools  of  the  state 
and  supervises  the  management  of  the  school  funds  and 
revenues. 

h.  Visits  every  county  once  in  two  years,  confers 
with  officers,  and  makes  public  addresses. 

c.  Receives  reports  concerning  proceeds  of  state 
school  tax,  and  interest  on  school  fund  from  County 
Auditors,  and  statistical  reports  from  County  Superin- 
tendents. 

d.  Apportions  the  school  revenue  for  tuition  to 
counties  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  school  children 
therein. 

e.  Hears  appeals  from  decisions  of  County  Super- 
intendents, and  gives  opinions  concerning  the  [school 
law. 

/.  Makes  annual  reports  and  causes  school  law  to 
be  published. 

g.  Is  Trustee  of  the  State  Normal  School,  and 
President  of  State  Board  of  Education. 

STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION— DUTIES. 

The  Board  forms  an  advisory  council  of  the  State 
Superintendent.     It  issues  instructions  to  County  Su- 


THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  129 

perintendents,  and  prepares  questions  for  the  use  of 
County  Superintendents  in  the  monthly  examination  of 
teachers. 

It  examines  candidates  for  state  license,  and  issues 
certificates  for  life  to  such  as  are  competent  and  have 
had  forty-eight  months  successful  experience. 

It  appoints  trustees  of  the  State  University,  and  the 
visitors  to  the  State  Normal  School.  It  commissions 
High  Schools  to  send  graduates  to  State  University, 
Purdue  University,  and  State  Normal  School  without 
examination. 

COUNTY  SUPERINTENDENT. 

1.  How  appointed :  By  the  Township  Trustees  at  a 
meeting  held  at  the  County  Auditor's  office  on  the  first 
Monday  in  June. 

2.  Term  of  office :     Two  years. 

3.  Duties: 

a.  To  examine  all  applicants  for  license  as  teach- 
ers of  the  schools  of  the  state  by  a  series  of  written  or 
printed  questions. 

b.  To  hold  at  least  one  public  examination  in 
each  month  of  the  year. 

c.  To  revoke,  when  required,  licenses  granted  by 
him  or  his  predecessors. 

d.  To  take  general  superintendence  of  the  schools 
of  his  county. 

e.  To  attend  each  Township  Institute  at  least 
once  in  each  year. 

/.  To  encourage  teachers*  institutes  and  associa- 
tions, and  to  labor  in  every  practicable  way  to  elevate 

10 


130  THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

the  standard  of  teaching,  and  to  improve  the  condition 
of  the  schools. 

g.  To  constitute  the  medium  between  the  State 
Superintendent  and  subordinate  school  officers. 

Any  questions  arising  about  the  school  law,  the  opin- 
ion of  the  County  Superintendent  should  first  be  sought, 
whence  an  appeal  may  be  made  to  the  State  Superin- 
tendent, on  a  written  statement  of  facts  certified  to  by 
the  County  Superintendent. 

h.  To  at  all  times  carry  out  the  orders  of  the  State 
Board  of  Education  and  State  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction. 

The  County  Board  of  Education  is  composed  of  the 
following  persons :  County  Superintendent,  Trustees  of 
the  townships,  Presidents  of  the  School  Boards  of  the 
several  towns  and  cities  of  the  county. 

TOWNSHIP  TRUSTEE— DUTIES, 

1.  He  shall  receive  the  special  school  revenue,  and 
the  revenue  for  tuition. 

2.  The  Trustee  shall  employ  and  contract  with 
teachers,  but  he  has  no  power  to  engage  a  teacher  with- 
out a  license  properly  issued  and  in  full  force  at  the  date 
of  the  employment. 

3.  The  Trustee  is  personally  liable  for  the  wages  of 
a  teacher  for  services  rendered  under  his  contract  with- 
out examination. 

PURPOSE. 

The  purpose  of  the  school  is  to  give  strength  and  train- 
ing to  the  will  and  sensibilities — ethical  conduct;  and  to 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  131 

confer  knowledge,  by  employing  it  as  an  instrument  of 
moral  and  intellectual  training — m^echanical  conduct  and 
scholarship. 

Conduct  may  be  defined,  in  general,  as  the  manner  in 
which  one  bears  himself  in  relation  to  The  Infinite,  to 
himself  and  to  others. 

In  its  endeavor  to  confer  conduct,  the  school  seeks  to 
prepare  the  pupil  for  self-conformity  to  the  standard  of 
action  in  each  of  these  relations.* 


•*-»^M^^^>^ 


>@fife-^ 


CHAPTER  VII. 


CONDUCT. 


WILL.       SENSIBILITY.       INTELLECT. 


LiFB  is  three-fourths  conduct :  one-fourth  knowledge. 

Matthew  Arnold. 

The  reward  of  one  duty  performed,  is  the  power  to  fulfill  another.  The 
idea  of  duty,  that  recognition  of  something  to  be  lived  for  beyond  the  mere 
satisfaction  of  self,  is  to  the  moral  life  what  the  addition  of  a  great  central 
ganglion  is  to  animal  life.  No  one  can  begin  to  mold  himself  on  a  faith  or 
an  idea  without  rising  to  a  higher  order  of  experience:  a  principle  of  sub- 
ordination, of  self-mastery,  has  been  introduced  into  his  nature :  he  is  no 
longer  a  mere  bundle  of  impressions,  desires,  and  impulses. 

George  Eliot. 


CONDUCT  IN  RELATION  TO  THE  INFINITE. 

<^N  SO  far  as  the  school  takes  a  part  in  grounding 
^  the  child  in  his  duty  in  this  relation,  it  is  usually 

through  the  medium  of  the  devotional  exercises  of  the 

school. 

The  work  of  the  opening  exercises  may  be  viewed  in 

two  ways : 

1.  As  intellectual. 

2.  As  moral. 

As  intellectual  it  is  subject  to  the  same  laws  as  other 
branches  of  instruction.  The  child  will  not  attend  to 
the  instruction  with  the  reverence  due,  merely  from  its 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  133 


own  pre-eminent  importance.  Therefore,  as  before 
stated,  the  same  conditions  under  which  he  yields  his 
attention  when  being  educated  by  means  of  reading, 
geography,  etc.,  must  be  observed  when  this,  the  highest 
of  all  subjects,  is  being  considered. 

a.  The  conditions  for  securing  attention  explained. 

b.  The  ones  that  apply  to  opening  exercises  indicated. 

But,  as  stated,  the  opening  exercises  have  a  moral  as- 
pect also — the  implanting  of  the  germs  of  love  and  rev- 
erence. This  is  the  higher  aspect.  No  one  who  deals 
with  this  phase  of  school  work,  will  contemplate  an  aim 
lower  than  this. 

TNE  DESIGN. 

The  design  of  parental  training  is,  first  of  all,  to  lead 
the  child  to  see  that  he  is  the  object  of  parental  love, 
and  to  foster  in  him  sentiments  of  love,  trust,  and  obedi- 
ence in  return. 

The  design  of  opening  exercises  should  be  to  impress 
the  child  with  a  sense  of  God's  parental  love  and  pres- 
ence, so  as  to  arouse  in  him  sentiments  of  filial  love  and 
reverence  for  God. 

THE  BASIS. 

Basis  in  general  explained. 

The  true  basis  for  this  important  work  must  be  that 
love  and  reverence  which  dwell  amid  the  sentiments, 
examples,  and  associations  of  home. 

The  idea  of  God  as  The  Father  must  be  made  the  cen- 
tral one.  To  this  all  the  others  must  be  subordinated, 
and  it  must  give  life  and  light  to  them  all. 


134         '  THE  THEORY  OP  THE   SCHOOL. 

The  child's  knowledge  of  home  relations  and  this  cen- 
tral idea  of  God  as  a  Heavenly  parent,  form  an  amply- 
sufficient  basis  for  that  series  of  lessons  extending 
through  the  early  years  of  school,  in  which  the  pupils 
may  be  led  to  understand  the  love,  reverence,  and  obedi- 
ence due  to  the  Divine  Being  in  His  benign  aspects ;  as, 

1.  The  creator  and  preserver  of  all. 

2.  All-knowing  and  ever-present. 

3.  Endowed  with  wisdom,  holiness,  truth  and  good- 
ness. 

4.  The  infinitely   kind  and    generous   Ruler  and 
Father  in  His  future  and  eternal  home. 

Obedience  and  happiness  are  the  ideas  of  the  child's 
early  existence,  and  therefore  this  is  the  aspect  of  the 
divine  character  which  he  can  comprehend,  for  it  is  the 
same  in  its  kind  as  that  relation  in  which  he  is  con- 
scious of  standing  to  his  earthly  parents.  In  the  words, 
"Our  Father  who  art  in  heaven,"  is  found  the  whole 
groundwork  of  that  love  and  reverence  which  it  is  the 
aim  of  the  opening  exercises  to  instill.  These  words 
are  worthy  from  their  inexhaustible  depth  of  meaning 
and  fullness  of  obligation  to  preface  that  model  prayer 
which  was  uttered  for  us  by  the  Divine  Teacher. 

Let  prominence  be  given  to  the  idea  of  '^ Father j^^  and 
the  pupils  may  be  led  to  see  : — 

That  He  provides  lovingly  and  carefully  for  His  chil- 
dren. 

That  when  He  sees  His  children  in  danger  He  rescues 
them  from  it. 

That  they  may  cherish  the  elevating  hope  of  an  eter- 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  136 

nal  life,  for  they  will  naturally  look  upon  a  father  as 
unwilling  to  bestow  life  upon  his  children  in  order  after- 
wards to  destroy  them. 

That  they  should  render  unto  Him  all  the  love,  rever- 
ence, and  obedience  which  are  due  to  a  father. 

Let  the  thought  be  centered  upon  ^^our^]  and  it  will  be 
evident  that  His  love  and  care  are  over  not  merely  one, 
but  all  the  members  of  his  countless  family,  and  there- 
fore that  they  ought  to  dwell  together  in  unity  and  love. 

Dwell  upon  the  phase  "m  heaven,^^  and  they  will  un- 
derstand that  He  is  all-wise,  holy,  and  good. 

That  they  should  seek  to  be  like  him,  and  to  know 
and  do  His  will. 

That  if  they  render  unto  Him  a  fitting  love,  rever- 
ence, and  obedience,  they  will  dwell  with  Him  in  that 
abode  of  peace  and  joy. 

The  opening  exercises  in  the  early  years  of  school  life 
as  in  later  years,  may  consist  of  singing,  lessons  on  the 
Sacred  Word,  or  on  topics  closely  connected  therewith, 
and  prayer. 

THE  METHOD. 

The  child  will  best  apprehend  the  work  of  the  open- 
ing exercises  when  presented  by  the  method  of  illustra- 
tion, and  not  explanation  proper.     (See  chapter  ix.) 

It  will  therefore  be  readily  seen  that  the  main  chan- 
nels of  instruction  in  this  work  as  based  upon  the  Holy 
Writ,  are  three : 

1.  Narration  including  biography. 

2.  Emblems. 

3.  Parables. 


136  THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

Having  indicated  the  three  channels  along  which  the 
instruction  should  flow,  it  remains — 

1.  To  speak  briefly  of  the  nature  of  each. 

2.  To  designate  the  steps  peculiar  to  each. 
B.  To  furnish  an  illustration. 

NARRATION. 
'  NATURE. 

Biography  always  interests  and  instructs  the  child, 
whenever  he  is  susceptible  of  instuction  at  all,  because 
it  appeals  directly  to  his  experience.  And  of  biogra- 
phies, there  are  few  if  any,  more  highly  interesting  and 
instructive  than  those  of  the  Bible,  both  on  account  of 
the  admirable  simplicity  with  which  they  are  deline- 
ated, and  of  the  unerpng  standard  of  conduct  by  which 
all  the  actions  which  they  record,  are  tried. 

STEPS. 

When  the  truth  to  be  conveyed  by  the  opening  exer- 
cises is  expressed  in  the  form  of  narration,  the  steps 
should  be : — 

1.  To  read  the  account  to  the  children,  or  to  tell  the 
story  in  one's  own  words,  as  in  familiar  conversation, 
depending  on  the  power  of  description  to  impress  the 
pictures  vividly  on  the  mind. 

2.  To  lead  the  pupils  to  note  the  most  important 
features. 

3.  To  lead  them  to  exercise  their  judgment  concern- 
ing these  features. 

4.  To  lead  them  to  apply  the  conclusion  to  them- 
selves. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  137 

5.  To  lead  them  to  express  the  main  thought  in  a 
Bible  precept  or  maxim. 

ILLUSTRATION. 
THE  SEPARATION  OF  ABRAM   AND  LOT. 

Gen.  XIII.  5-13:  "And  Lot  also,  which  went  with 
Abram  had  flocks  and  herds  and  tents. 

And  the  land  was  not  able  to  bear  them  that  they 
might  dwell  together ;  for  their  substance  was  great,  so 
that  they  could  not  dwell  together. 

And  there  was  strife  between  the  herdmen  of  Abram 's 
cattle  and  the  herdmen  of  Lot's  cattle;  and  the  Canaan- 
ite  and  Perizzite  dwelled  then  in  the  land. 

And  Abram  said  unto  Lot,  'Let  there  be  no  strife,  I 
pray  thee,  between  me  and  thee,  and  between  my  herd- 
men  and  thy  herdmen,  for  we  be  brethren. 

Is  not  the  whole  land  before  thee  ?  Separate  thyself, 
I  pray  thee,  from  me.  If  thou  wilt  take  the  left  hand 
then  I  will  go  to  the  right ;  or,  if  thou  depart  to  the 
right  hand,  then  I  will  go  to  the  left.' 

And  Lot  lifted  up  his  eyes  and  beheld  all  the  plain  of 
Jordan,  that  it  was  well  watered  everywhere,  before  the 
Lord  destroyed  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  even  as  the  gar- 
den of  the  Lord,  like  the  land  of  Egypt  as  thou  comest 
unto  Zoar.  , 

Then  Lot  chose  him  all  the  plain  of  Jordan  ;  and  Lot 
journeyed  east ;  and  they  separated  themselves,  the  one 
from  the  other. 

Abram  dwelled  in  the  land  of  Canaan,  and  Lot  dwell- 
ed in  the  cities  of  the  plain,  and  pitched  his  tent  toward 
Sodom." 


138  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Before  treating  of  the  main  subject — the  separation — 
lead  the  pupils  to  note  carefully  the  persons  mentioned 
in  the  lesson  ;  show  how  they  came  to  be  traveling  to- 
gether ;  dwell  briefly  upon  their  previous  journeyings 
showing  that  they  had  last  been  in  Egypt  on  account 
of  a  grievous  famine  and  that  they  had  now  returned 
out  of  Egypt  into  Canaan  and  had  pitched  their  tents 
at  a  mountain  between  Bethel  and  Hai,  where  Abram 
had  previously  erected  an  altar  and  offered  Sacrifices 
unto  the  Lord ;  call  special  attention  to  that  which  they 
had  with  them,  showing  their  occupation  and  wealth. 

THE   SEPARATION. 
THE    DIFFICULTY. 

In  treating  of  the  difficulty,  show  that  their  prosperity 
was  in  accord  with  God's  promise  as  previously  given  to 
Abram. 

Gen.  XII.  2;  "And  I  will  make  of  thee  a  great  nation ; 
and  I  will  bless  thee  and  make  thy  name  great,  and 
thou  shalt  be  a  blessing.*' 

Show  in  what  their  wealth  consisted,  and  illustrate  by 
familiar  observation  that  a  grassy  and  well-watered  re- 
gion is  required  ;  lead  the  pupils  to  see  also  that  many 
herdsmen  would  be  required  to  care  for  the  flocks;  how 
many,  show  by  referring  to  Gen.  XIV-14.  ''And  when 
Abram  heard  that  his  brother  was  taken  captive,  he 
armed  his  trained  servants  born  in  his  own  house,  three 
hundred  and  eighteen,  and  pursued  them  unto  Dan." 

Describe  carefully  the  region   in  which   they   were, 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  139 

with  its  pasturage  and  wells,  explaining  the  dangers  of 
the  situation,  the  place  and  the  cause  of  the  quarrel. 

THE    aCNEROSITY    OF    ABRAM. 

Call  attention  to  Abram's  temptation,  considering  what 
he  did  in  connection  with  what  ordinary  men  would 
have  done  under  the  circumstances  ;  determine  reasons 
for  his  action  by  showing  how  they  were  related — uncle 
and  nephew — and  that  strife  is  always  to  be  deprecated; 
is  So  especially  among  kinsmen ;  and  also  that  Abram, 
being  a  man  of  God,  felt  that  he  should  set  a  worthy 
example  before  the  idolatrous  Canaanites.  Lead  them 
to  see  how  he  avoided  the  quarrel,  the  prudence  of  sep- 
arating, and  in  addition,  by  referring  to  Gen.  XII.  1-5, 
show  who  had  the  better  right  to  choose,  and  why. 

"Now  the  Lord  had  said  unto  Abram,  'Get  thee  out 
of  thy  country,  and  from  thy  kinsmen,  and  from  thy 
father's  house,  unto  a  land  that  I  will  shew  thee;  and  I 
will  make  of  thee  a  great  nation,  and  I  will  bless  thee 
and  make  thy  name  great,  and  thou  shalt  be  a  blessing; 
and  I  will  bless  them  that  bless  thee,  and  curse  him 
that  curseth  thee ;  and  in  thee  shall  all  the  families  of 
the  earth  be  blessed.' 

And  Abram  departed,  as  the  Lord  had  spoken  unto 
him,  and  Lot  went  with  him ;  and  Abram  was  seventy 
and  five  years  old  when  he  departed  out  of  Haran." 

Dwell  upon  the  generosity  and  faith  in  God,  shown 
by  Abram. 

TMi  •itritN  CHOICE  or  lot. 

I^t  what  Lot  should  have  thought  and  done,  be  made 
to  stand  out  clearly  against  what  he  really  thought  and 


140  THE   THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

did ;  describe  particularly  the  expressions,  "lifted  up  his 
eyes"— "all  the  way  to  Zoar." 

Show  that  it  was  a  meadow  land  all  along  Jordan, 
well  watered  everywhere  and  very  fertile,  i.  e.  a  garden 
of  the  Lord ;  speak  of  the  position  of  Zoar. 

Carefully  note  Lot's  solicitude  to  choose  the  best  for 
himself,  and  lead  them  to  fitly  characterize  his  choice. 

■X 

THE    CONSEQUENCES. 

Show  who  would  be  the  happier  and  why,  by  consid- 
ering the  thoughts ^of  both,  and  in  addition  consider  the 
one  important  thing  that  Lot  overlooked  by  referring  to 
Gen.  XIII.  13.  "But  the  men  of  Sodom  were  wicked 
and  sinners  before  the  Lord  exceedingly." 

Then  illustrate  the  misery  of  living  with  bad  neigh- 
bors even  amidst  plenty ;  show  the  future  troubles  of 
Lot  from  war  and  from  the  destruction  of  Sodom,  from 
both  of  which  he  was  saved  by  Abram.  Dwell  upon 
the  disposition  this  shows,  by  considering.  Gen.  XIV. 
1-16.  Show  that  Abram  remained  where  he  was,  con- 
tented, blessed  still  more  and  more,  and  call  especial 
attention  to  the  promise  given  him  just  after  Lot's  de- 
parture. 

Gen.  XIII.  15-18:  "And  the  Lord  said  unto  Abram 
after  that  Lot  was  separated  from  him,  'Lift  up  now 
thine  eyes,  and  look  from  the  place  where  thou  art, 
northward  and  southward  and  eastward  and  westward, 
for  all  the  lands  which  thou  seest,  to  thee  will  I  give  it 
and  to  thy  seed  forever.  And  I  will  make  thy  seed  as 
the  dust  of  the  earth,  so  that  if  a  man  can  number  the 
dust  of  the  earth,  then  shall  thy  seed   be  numbered. 


THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  141 

\rise,  walk  through  the  land  in  the  length  of  it  and  in 
;he  breadth  of  it,  for  I  will  give  it  unto  thee.'* 

CONCLUSION. 

In  conclusion  fix  clearly  three  thoughts  : 

1.  That  one  should  live  peaceably  with  all,  especial- 
y  with  brethren.  Illustrate  by  their  school-life  and 
lave  them  learn  the  following  : 

Psalms  CXXXIII:  "Behold  how  good  and  how  pleas- 
int  it  is  for  brethren  to  dwell  together  in  unity!  It  is 
ike  the  precious  ointment  upon  the  head  that  ran  down 
apon  the  beard,  even  Aaron's  beard  that  went  down  to 
he  skirts  of  his  garments ;  as  the  dew  of  Hermon  and 
he  dew  that  descended  upon  the  mountains  of  Zion ; 
or  there  the  Lord  commanded  the  blessing,  even  life 
brever  more." 

Romans  XIL  18;  "If  it  be  possible,  as  much  as  lieth 
n  you,  live  peaceably  with  all  men." 

2.  That  those  who  know  what  is  right  ought  to  set 
I  good  example  to  others  as  Abram  did. 

Illustrate  by  their  school  life  and  have  them  learn  : 
Matt.   V.  16:     "Let  your  light  so  shine  before  men, 

ihat  they  may  see  your  good  works  and  glorify  your 

P'ather  which  is  in  heaven." 

3.  That  one  should  be  generous  and  not  selfish ; 
,he  one  leading  to  happiness  and  the  other  to  misery. 

Illustrate  by  their  school  life  and  have  them  learn : 
Malt.   VII.  12.-    "Therefore,  all  things  whatsoever  ye 
«rould  that  men  should  do  unto  you,  do  ye  even  so  unto 
;hem  ;  for  this  is  the  law  and  the  prophets." 


142  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

Romans  XII.  10;  "Be  kindly  affectioned  one  to 
another  with  brotherly  love;  in  honor  preferring  one 
another." 

EMBLEMS.  * 
NATURE. 

Emblems  are  not  only  very  numerous,  but  they  con- 
vey all  the  encouragements,  hopes,  duties,  and  experi- 
ences of  the  Christian  life ;  while  they  are  quickly  and 
pleasantly  learned  and  easily  retained,  from  the  concise- 
ness of  their  statement,  the  aptness  of  illustration,  and 
the  interesting  associations  suggested  by  them.  There 
are  no  parts  of  Scripture,  moreover,  that  more  readily 
occur  to  one,  or  are  more  welcome  guests  to  the  imagi- 
nation amidst  the  busy  scenes  of  life. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  Old  Testament. 

"The  Lord  is  my  Shepherd." 
"The  name  of  the  Lord  is  a  strong  tower." 
"We  all  do  fade  as  a  leaf." 

"As  a  hart  panteth  for  the  water-brooks,  so  panteth 
my  soul  for  Thee,  0  God." 

"Keep  me  as  the  apple  of  Thine  eye." 

"The  righteous  shall  flourish  as  the  palm  tree." 

"I  will  be  as  the  dew  unto  Israel." 

2.  New  Testament. 

"Ye  are  the  salt  of  the  earth." 

"All  flesh  is  grass." 

"Put  on  the  whole  armor  of  God.'' 


*  STOW'S  BIBLE  EMBLEMS. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  143 


The  method  with  a  lesson  on  a  Scripture  emblem  is 
comprised  of  two  steps  : — 

1.  The  natural  image  or  object  of  reference  in  the 
figure  must  first  be  fully  illustrated  in  itself;  as  fully  as 
is  required  for  the  use  which  is  to  be  made  of  it.  The 
length  of  the  illustration  will  depend  upon  the  nature 
of  the  object. 

Sometimes  the  image  is  exclusively  oriental  or  trop- 
ical, as  in  "The  righteous  shall  flourish  as  the  palm 
tree,''  in  which  case,  since  it  would  be  remote  from  the 
experience  of  the  pupil,  detailed  illustration  would  be 
required  to  bring  it  before  him  with  anything  of  its 
original  force.  Sometimes  again  the  image  is,  in  itself, 
as  significant  to  him  as  it  was  to  those  to  whom  it  was 
originally  addressed,  as  in  "Ye  are  the  salt  of  the 
earth." 

The  more  clearly  and  forcibly  the  image  is  impressed 
on  the  pupil's  mind,  the  broader  will  be  the  foundation 
for  the  second  step. 

2.  The  image  should  be  given  the  spiritual  inter- 
pretion. 

In  this  second  step  lies  the  greatest  diflficulty,  which 
is  the  avoidance  on  the  one  hand  of  the  presentation  of 
the  spiritual  emblem  in  terms  too  vague  to  be  of  any 
practical  value ;  on  the  other  hand,  an  avoidance  of  an 
overstraining  of  the  analogy,  by  pursuing  it  in  direc- 
tions in  which  it  does  not  hold  ;  the  effect  of  which  is 
to  weaken  the  force  of  the  truth  which  the  emblem 
inculcates. 


144  THE   THEORY   OP   THE   SCHOOL. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

"I  WILL  BE  AS  THE  DEW  UNTO  ISRAEL." 

INTRODUCTION. 

Under  the  introduction,  the  teacher  might  speak  of  a 
walk  in  the  fields  on  a  summer  morning  ;  the  surprise 
on  finding  the  shoes  all  wet,  on  a  clear,  dry,  warm 
morning;  call  attention  to  the  cause  of  this— the  dew  ; 
discuss  the  manner  of  its  formation. 

NATURAL   IMAGE. 
THE    REFRESHING    POWER    OF    THE    DEW. 

Show  that  among  other  things,  moisture,  obtained 
principally  from  rain,  is  required  for  the  growth  of 
plants ;  that  sometimes,  however,  there  are  long  and  hot 
dry  seasons  in  which  the  plants  would  be  scorched  ; 
lead  the  pupils  to  see  that  moisture  is  required  frequent- 
ly and  regularly,  and  that  while  the  gardener  might 
water  the  delicate  flower,  this  would  be  impossible  with 
the  grass  and  grain  of  the  wide  fields  ;  but  that  this 
office  is  filled  by  the  gentle  dew  by  keeping  all  vegeta- 
tion fresh,  green  and  full  of  sap,  when  otherwise  it 
would  wither  and  die. 

Speak  then,  of  the  rainy  and  dry  seasons  of  the  East 
and  the  greater  strength  of  the  sun's  heat  there,  and  the 
longer  drought;  show  that  therefore,  a  greater  amount 
of  dew  is  there  required,  and  that  it  is  deposited  in 
greater  quantities;  so  much  greater  that  often  little 
water-courses  are  filled  with  it,  as  they  are  in  our  regions 
after  a  rain,  and  tell  how  much  in  such  countries  the 
dew  is  valued. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  145 

THE    SILENT    ACTION    OF    THE    DEW. 

Call  the  attention  of  the  pupils  to  the  fact  that  even 
when  they  are  busy  at  home  or  at  school,  they  can 
know  of  the  coming  and  presence  of  rain,  from  seeing 
it,  or  from  the  sound  of  the  drops,  but  even  were  they 
watching,  they  could  not  notice  the  coming  of  the  dew ; 
but  that  in  the  morning  they  may  know  of  its  presence; 
picture  to  them  the  dew  as  collecting  gradually,  silently 
and  invisibly  on  the  plants. 

SPIRITUAL  TRUTH. 
THE    BLESSING    OF    GOD    IS    LIKE    THE    DEW. 

Call  attention  again  to  the  languishing  flowers,  and 
show  that  animals  and  people  also  languish,  and  require 
rest  to  refresh  them.  Present  the  idea  that  human 
beings  have  things  to  weary  them  other  than  toil,  i.e., 
pain,  anxiety,  and  grief,  from  various  causes,  and  that 
time  and  the  comfort  of  friends  tend  to  relieve  them 
from  these. 

Then  consider  another  cause  of  weariness  and  anxie- 
ty— the  sense  of  sin  or  wrong-doing  in  their  relations  to 
God.  Illustrate  how  this  oppresses  them  when  they 
afterwards  reflect  upon  it.  Lead  them  to  see  that  God, 
as  their  Heavenly  Father,  will  refresh  them  and  make 
them  glad  and  hopeful  again,  just  as  the  plants  are  re- 
vived and  refreshed  by  the  dew. 

OOO**    BCIMINM    COMC    IM    SlkCNCC,    LIKE    THE    OfW. 

Call  attention  to  some  of  the  chief  blessings  of  life, 
and  show  that  some  people  do  not  look  upon  them  as 


146  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

blessings  at  all,  but  as  things  that  belong  to  them.  Con- 
sider God's  promises  to  those  in  distress,  and  show  that 
he  fulfills  them  and  sends  his  gifts  upon  all,  as  the  dew 
comes,  invisibly  and  in  silence. 


CONCLUSION. 


Under  the  conclusion,  lead  the  pupils  to  see  that  all 
should  be  animated  by  the  feelings  of  love,  reverence, 
and  obedience  toward  the  Heavenly  Father,  and  that 
they  should  look  to  Him  in  all  difficulties  and  look  with 
confidence.  Consider  the  advantages  of  being  His 
people. 

Hosea  XIV.  1-7:  "0  Israel,  return  unto  the  Lord  thy 
God ;  for  thou  hast  fallen  by  thine  iniquity.  Take  with 
you  words  and  turn  to  the  Lord,  say  unto  Him,  'Take 
away  all  iniquity  and  receive  us  graciously,  so  will  we 
render  the  calves  of  our  lips.  Asshur  shall  not  save  us ; 
we  will  not  ride  upon  horses,  neither  will  we  say  any 
more  to  (he  work  of  our  hands,  Ye  are  our  gods  ;  for  in 
Thee  the  fatherless  findeth  mercy.  I  will  heal  their 
backsliding,  I  will  love  them  freely,  for  mine  anger  is 
turned  away  from  him.  I  will  be  as  the  dew  unto 
Lsrael;  he  shall  grow  as  the  lily  and  cast  forth  his  roots 
as  Lebanon.  His  branches  shall  spread  and  his  beauty 
shall  be  as  the  olive  tree,  and  his  smell  as  Lebanon. 
They  that  dwell  under  the  shadow  shall  return  ;  they 
shall  revive  as  the  corn  and  grow  as  the  vine ;  the  scent 
thereof  shall  be  as  the  wines  of  Lebanon." 

Read  and  explain  the  above  seven  verses  and  cause 
the  pupils  to  learn  the  last  three. 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  147 

PARABLES.  * 
NATURE. 

It  would  be  somewhat  difficult  to  give  any  definition 
of  a  parable  to  which  reasonable  exception  might  not 
be  taken,  on  account  of  the  great  variety  of  construc- 
tion existing  among  the  compositions  which  pass  under 
that  name.  But  if  such  a  definition  could  be  framed 
it  would  not  greatly  serve  the  present  purpose,  which  is 
not  so  much  to  find  the  correct  theory  of  their  structure 
£is  it  is  to  determine  the  best  method  of  presenting  them 
so  as  to  bring  out  their  full  force  and  beauty. 

The  method  of  teaching  the  parables  ought  to  be 
made  both  interesting  and  instructive.  ^ 

The  parables  themselves  are  interesting,  because  the 
mind,  even  of  the  unenlightened,  readily  apprehends 
and  retains  such  representations  as  they  embody,  from 
their  dealing  with  things  similar  to  those  of  actual 
experience.  The  Son  of  God  addressed  them  to  audi- 
ences which  were  often  ignorant,  and  when  not  ignorant, 
unfriendly — if  not  openly  hostile;  yet  it  is  evident, 
from  various  indications,  that  interest  and  attention 
were  always  aroused  when  He  spoke  in  parables. 

Much  more  are  they  suited  to  enlist  the  interest  and 
attention  of  children,  who  always  turn  from  the  abstract 
to  the  concrete,  from  the  general  principle  to  the  par- 
ticular action  embodying  it. 

The  parables,  besides  being  interesting,  are  always  in- 
structive. They  are  devoted  to  unfolding  the  great 
moral  duties  of  religion,  the  performance  of  which  is  at 

*TBBMCH  ON  THE  PABABLKS. 


148  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

once  the  test  and  end  of  true  religion.  They  all  have 
an  extremely  practical  purpose,  and  they  are  wonder- 
fully fertile  in  suggestions.  It  is  not  only  their  one 
leading  lesson  that  is  enforced  on  us;  numerous  inci- 
dental lessons  spring  up  as  we  advance  from  part  to 
part  of  the  narration.  Moreover,  they  are  all  as  appli- 
cable to  present  circumstances  as  to  the  circumstances 
of  those  to  whom  they  were  first  addressed.  None  of 
them  are  obsolete ;  all  are  as  fresh  as  when  they  fell 
from  the  lips  of  the  Great  Teacher.  They  rouse  our 
sympathies  as  much  as  they  did  those  of  the  men  of 
olden  times.  And  they  will  arouse  the  sympathies  of 
men  under  any  of  the  conditions  of  human  life  as  much 
as  they  do  ours,  because  the  incidents  they  build  upon 
occur  in  the  life  of  every  society,  and  because  the  ele- 
ments of  character  and  the  affections  to  which  they 
appeal  are  the  same  at  all  times  and  in  all  places. 

STEPS. 

In  indicating  the  lines  which  the  method  should  fol- 
low, it  will  be  sufficient  to  notice  the  one  leading  feature 
of  the  parable,  i.e.,  that  it  has  two  distinct  aspects — the 
one  literal,  and  the  other  figurative  and  spiritual ;  and 
that  the  spiritual  is  conveyed  by  the  analogy  of  the  lit- 
eral representation. 

Viewed  in  the  one  light,  a  parable  is  a  story  setting 
forth  some  incident  in  nature  or  in  human  life,  real  or 
imaginary,  and  having  an  interpretation  complete  in 
itself 

Viewed  in  the  other  light,  it  is  the  language  of  sym- 
bol, teaching  duty  to  God  and  man. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  149 

In  the  presentation  of  the  parable,  the  steps  are  there- 
fore two : — 

1.  To  make  clear  the  literal  idea. 

2.  To  present  the  spiritual  truth  of  which  the  literal 
idea  is  the  symbol. 

All  explanations  necessary  to  the  comprehension  of 
the  incidents  should  be  given  in  connection  with  the 
first  step,  e.g.,  explanations  in  regard  to  the  geography 
of  the  scene,  or  the  manners  and  customs  to  which  refer- 
ence is  made — that  they  may  not  afterwards  interrupt 
the  interpretation. 

This  first  step  ought  to  possess  the  merit  of  being 
clear  and  graphic,  so  as  to  impress  the  pupil's  imagina- 
tion. 

In  the  second  step — the  presentation  of  the  spiritual 
truth — the  story  should  be  taken  part  by  part,  and  each 
portion  have  clearly  attached  to  it  the  spiritual  meaning 
of  which  it  is  the  symbol. 

In  dealing  with  the  parable,  as  well  as  in  dealing  with 
the  emblem,  there  are  two  dangers  peculiar  to  the  sec- 
ond step. 

The  first,  as  before,  is  vagueness,  arising  generally  from 
the  teacher's  not  apprehending  with  sufficient  clearness 
and  force  the  precise  aim  of  the  parable.  This  will  lead 
to  the  attempt  to  make  it  teach  a  great  many  things; 
but  it  will  result  in  causing  it  to  teach  nothing  in  par- 
ticular. 

The  second  danger,  as  before  also,  is  an  overstraining 
of  the  analogy,  which  results  from  pressing  the  story  too 
far  into  detail,  which  will  end  in  a  distortion  [of  the 


150  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

spiritual  truth,  when  the  attempt  is  made  to  carry  out 
the  parallel  between  it  and  the  literal  side.  If  the  parable 
has  been  well  illustrated  in  the  first  step,  as  it  should  be, 
the  reflections  which  it  suggests  will  be  such  that  no 
minute  or  indirect  inference  will  be  justified.  The  over- 
ruling point  in  connection  with  the  second  step  is  to  see 
that  the  spiritual  truth  is  distinctly  and  impressively 
brought  forth.  The  test  of  success  in  teaching  the  para- 
ble is  the  force  and  clearness  with  which  the  practical 
conclusions,  which  are  deduced  from  it,  are  brought  to 
hear  on  the  home  and  school  suroundings  of  the  pupils. 

It  is  to  but  little  purpose  that  the  story  is  graphically 
presented  in  the  first  step,  or  that  the  inferences  drawn 
from  it  in  the  second  step  are  just,  if  the  duty  which  it 
is  designed  to  impress  is  not  brought  to  bear  with  clear- 
ness and  force  upon  the  consciences  of  the  pupils. 

Let  the  teacher  habitually  lead  them  to  look  upon  the 
truth  which  the  parable  conveys  as  a  truth  to  be  receiv- 
ed into  their  hearts,  and  to  be  held  there  as  a  life-long 
influence. 

To  aid  in  this,  as  a  concluding  step,  the  parable  should 
be  committed  to  memory. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Matt.  XIII.  33.  "Another  parable  spake  He  unto 
them  :  'The  kingdom  of  heaven  is  like  unto  leaven, 
which  a  woman  took  and  hid  in  three  measures  of  meal, 
till  the  whole  was  leavened.'  " 

Luke  XIII.  20-21.  "And  again  He  said  :  'Whereunto 
shall  I  liken  the  kingdom  of  God  ?    It  is  like  leaven 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  151 

which  a  woman  took  and  hid  in  three  measures  of  meal, 
till  the  whole  was  leavened.'  " 

INTRODUCTION. 

Under  the  introduction,  first  question  the  pupils  on 
materials  used  in  bread-making  and  the  process  of  mak- 
ing the  dough  ;  call  especial  attention  to  an  additional 
element  and  its  office — the  yeast  or  leaven  ;  note  its 
effect — a  change  next  morning  in  the  dough  in  appear- 
ance and  taste,  in  every  part  and  particle. 

Under  the  introduction,  in  the  second  place,  read  the 
parable. 

THE  STORY. 

Under  the  story  or  literal  part,  call  attention  to  the 
meaning  of  "^?'d,"  the  amount  of  flour  or  meal,  and 
show  how  much  three  measures  were  and  that  this  was 
the  quantity  commonly  used.     See 

Gen.  XVIII.  6:  "And  Abraham  hastened  into  the 
tent  unto  Sarah,  and  said,  'Make  ready  quickly  three 
measures  of  fine  meal,  knead  it,  and  make  cakes  upon 
the  hearth.'" 

Speak  then  of  the  use  of  water,  and  then  of  the  leaven, 
noting  specially  that  the  change  requires  time,  and  by 
referring  to  the  introduction  illustrate  the  nature  of  the 
change,  dwelling  upon  the  ideas  that  it  is  both  gradual 
and  complete. 

INTERPRETATION. 

THE  OHANOI.  * 

Show  that  by  a  change  in  the  dough  is  meant  a  spirit- 
ual change  in  ourselves;  try  to  lead  the  pupils  to  see  in 
a  general  sense,  what  that  change  must  be ;  by  appeal- 


152  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

ing  to  their  experience,  show  that  all  at  times  do  wrong, 
illustrating  by  referring  to  particular  acts  or  thoughts, 
and  that  therefore  all  are  sinful ;  show  how  a  Father  of 
infinite  love  and  kindness  must  regard  this,  and  that 
before  we  can  come  into  harmony  with  Him,  and  ac- 
complish the  purpose  of  our  lives,  we  must  be  changed, 
just  as  the  dough  must  be  changed  before  it  becomes 
bread. 

THE   CAUSE   OF  THE   CHANGE. 

Show,  first,  that  it  is  likened  to  the  leaven,  and  that, 
therefore,  the  ^''kingdom  of  heaven'''  must  mean  something 
felt  on  earth  among  men,  for  Jesus  was  speaking  of 
men;  convey  the  idea  that  it  is  the  love  of  God  in  our 
hearts,  or  the  love  and  kindness  toward  all,  which 
animates  us;  refer  to  the  love  the  pupils  bear  to  their 
parents  and  brothers  and  sisters,  showing  how  it  influ- 
ences their  whole  home  conduct,  giving,  if  possible, 
some  illustrations;  so,  if  we  feel  love  and  reverence 
toward  God,  we  shall  do  what  will  meet  with  His  ap- 
proval, and  shall  be  kindly  disposed  toward  all. 

THE    CHANGE    IS   GRADUAL. 

Lead  the  pupil  to  think  of  the  appearance  of  the 
dough,  if  it  were  examined  at  short  intervals  after  the 
leaven  was  put  in ;  show  that  the  woman  had  to  wait 
for  the  change,  not  in  doubt,  but  certain  that  it  would 
occur  in  time.  From  this  go  to  the  thought  that  no  one 
can  change  himself  all  at  once,  referring  to  some  habit 
to  illustrate  the  difficulty  of  changing  and  the  time 
needed;  advancing  the  idea  that  if  we  are  animated  by 
love  and  reverence  toward  God,  and  growing  out  of  that, 


THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  153 

by  kindness  for  all,  we  shall  be  changed  by  degrees,  first 
one  bad  habit  and  then  another;  first  one  bad  thought 
and  then  another,  as  life  passes  along,  until  the  change 
is  entire,  impressing  the  idea  that  however  slow  and  im- 
perceptible, it  is,  under  those  circumstances,  sure. 

THE   CHANGE    COMPLETE. 

Lead  the  pupils  to  think  of  the  condition  of  the  dough 
when  the  woman  came  back  to  it,  showing  that  so  entire 
was  the  change  that  even  tliose  portions  furthest  from 
the  center,  where  the  leaven  was  put  in,  had  been 
changed ;  enforce  the  idea  that  this  must  be  the  nature 
of  the  change  ip  us ;  that  every  bad  act,  bad  word,  bad 
thought,  even  the  secret  ones,  must  be  given  up. 

CONCLUSION. 

Under  the  conclusion,  or  practical  part,  show  first 
that  all  need  to  be  changed ;  that  all  can  obtain  the  thing 
needed  to  change  us;  that  it  is  love  and  reverence  for 
the  Heavenly  Father,  alone,  which  can  make  the  change, 
and  that  therefore  all  ought  to  seek  to  know  Him,  and 
to  love  and  reverence,  and  to  obey  Him. 

Under  the  conclusion,  or  practical  part,  show,  in  the 
second  place,  what  our  conduct  will  be  if  we  are  ani- 
mated by  love  and  reverence  for  Him;  that  we  shall 
avoid  sinful  acts,  and  shall  grow  better  day  by  day.'* 

SUGGESTIVE  EXERCISES. 

The  following,  prepared  by  the  teachers  of  the  respective 
gratles  in  the  Training  School,  indicates  the  work  in  opening 
exercises  as  given  by  them:  It  will  be  seen  that  the  work 
bears  upon  conduct  in  all  three  relations. 

*KKV.  JAMBB  CUBEIE. 


154  THE  THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL 


FIRST   AND   SECOND   GRADES. 

The  opening  exercises  in  a  primary  school  should  be  short, 
suited  to  the  child's  comprehension,  varied  from  day  to  day 
and  sufficiently  interesting  to  hold  the  complete  attention. 

The  great  object  in  view  will  be  defeated  if  the  child  is  made 
to  feel  that  he  is  receiving  moral  instruction;  it  is  not  necessary 
that  each  selection  read  or  story  told  should  be  "pointed  with 
a  moral."  Let  the  story  be  told  in  simple,  forcible  language ; 
let  the  selection  be  from  an  honest,  consistent  author,  who 
understands  the  child's  nature  and  needs,  and  the  moral  will 
impress  itself  without  aid. 

Those  exercises  should  be  employed  which  have  in  view  both 
instruction  and  moral  training. 

Collect  a  series  of  facts  and  anecdotes  from  the  lives  of  good 
people,  each  of  which  shall  teach  some  important  lesson,  such 
as: — patience  truthfulness,  bravery,  kindness  to  people  and 
animals,  self-denial,  heroism,  patriotism,  generosity,  etc.  If  pos- 
sible, obtain  a  rehable  picture  of  the  person  who  lorms  the  sub- 
ject of  the  lesson.  Let  the  children  handle  it,  if  it  be  small ;  if 
large,  hang  it  upon  the  wall  where  it  can  be  easily  seen.  (Har- 
per's Weekly  will  occasionally  furnish  a  portrait.  Holiday  cat- 
alogues of  books  will  do  the  same). 

While  the  portrait  and  name  are  becoming  familiar,  relate 
the  anecdotes  or  facts  selected.  If  an  author  forms  the  subject 
of  the  sketch,  read  from  his  writings.  Thus  the  children  will 
associate  the  face,  the  character  and  the  product  of  his  pen. 

Such  characters  may  be  selected  as: 

George  Washington,  Putnam,  Benjamin  Franklin,  J.  G. 
Whittier,  H.W.  Longfellow,  Abraham  Lincoln,  Hans  Andersen, 
Louise  Alcott,  Mary  Mapes  Dodge,  Lucy  Larcom,  etc. 

At  the  proper  time  there  may  be  associated  with  their  author, 
the  "Scrap  Bag"  stories,  chapters  from  "Little  Men"  and  "Little 
Women;"  ''Merry  Rhymes  and  Jingles"  with  Mary  Mapes 
Dodge;  "Fairy  Tales"  with  Hans  Andersen;  etc. 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  155 

Whittier  and  Lucy  Larcom  have  each  a  collection  of  poems 
for  children. 

A  series  of  articles  entitled  "Stories  About  Favorite  Authors" 
in  *'Our  Little  Men  and  Women,"  will  be  found  useful.  "Baby- 
land,"  "St.  Nicholas,"  "Wide-Awake"  and  the  "Independent" 
will  furnish  good  material,  as  will  "Our  Children's  Songs,"  a 
book  of  carefully  selected  poems.  From  the  study  of  the  char- 
acters suggested,  the  attention  may  be  turned  to  the  life  of 
Christ,  as  presented  in  the  New  Testament.  The  study  may 
begin  with  his  childhood,  and  the  interest  be  heightened  by  a 
description  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  time  as  diflfer- 
ing  from  our  own.  Having  studied  Him,  His  words  and  teach- 
ings will  gain  additional  interest.  The  Lord's  Prayer  should  be 
explained  and  committed  by  the  pupils.  Many  of  the  parables 
can  be  understood  and  their  truth  impressed. 

A  series  of  texts  (arranged  in  alphabetical  order  to  assist  the 
memory)  may  be  taught  the  pupils,  each  text  being  the  subject 
of  a  lesson,  or  a  series  of  lessons.  The  meaning  of  the  text 
should  be  thoroughly  understood  by  the  pupils  before  it  is 
formulated,  otherwise,  as  is  often  true,  the  words  alone  remain 
in  the  memory,  and  are  like  an  empty  shell,  the  rich  kernel 
being  overlooked. 

Through  these  texts  may  be  taught : — 

Love  to  God,  to  parents,  to  all  things  created. 

That  we  must  obey  Him  if  we  wish  Him  to  love  us. 

That  He  wishes  us  to  love  Him. 

That  we  must  be  honest  in  thought,  word  and  deed,  etc. 

THIRD   AND   FOURTH  GRADES. 

The  opening  exercises  consist  of  singing  devotional  songs, 
repetition  of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  Bible  verses,  alphabetically  ar- 
ranged, alternating  with  the  Twenty-third  Psalm  or  Ten  Com- 
mandments and  the  morning  lesson. 

The  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  psalm  may  be  sung  as  a  chant  for 
variety. 


156  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

BIBLE  VERSES. 

These  verses  are  selected  by  the  pupils  in  the  following  man- 
ner : — 

Each  child  is  prepared,  on  a  certain  day,  with  a  Bible  verse 
beginning  with  "a." 

The  children  select  the  child's  verse  which  they  can  most 
easily  understand. 

Examples  : — "A  good  name  is  rather  to  be  chosen  than  great 
riches,  and  loving  favor  rather  than  silver  and  gold."  "Do 
unto  others  as  you  would  have  others  do  unto  you."  "Even  a 
child  is  known  by  his  doings,  whether  his  works  be  pure,  or 
whether  they  be  right."  "Lying  lips  are  abomination  to  the 
Lord,  but  they  that  speak  truly  are  his  delight." 

After  the  selection  has  been  made  the  pupils  are  allowed  to 
give  their  own  thought  of  its  meaning. 

The  teacher,  by  illustration,  makes  the  meaning  more  plain. 

Illustration : — "Go  to  the  ant,  thou  sluggard,  consider  her 
ways,  and  be  wise  ;  which,  having  no  guide,  overseer  or  ruler, 
provideth  her  meat  in  the  summer  and  gathereth  her  food  in 
the  harvest." 

Lead  pupils  to  observe  the  ant-hill ;  tell  them  about  its  won- 
derful structure,  its  builders,  their  queen,  workers  and  warriors. 

Give  a  vivid  picture  of  the  sluggard. 

Lead  the  pupils  to  apply  the  meaning  to  themselves. 

The  work  on  the  ant  can  be  done  for  rest  work  on  the  pre- 
vious day. 

MORNING  LESSON. 

This  lesson  consists  in  a  portion  of  a  Bible  story,  read  or  told 
by  the  teacher,  in  simple  attractive  language. 

Last  year  the  teacher  selected  one  story  for  each  month, 
occasionally  changing  the  story  for  a  parable  or  emblem,  or  had 
the  children  select  and  commit  verses  containing  certain 
thoughts  ;  as  love,  truth,  obedience,  etc.  Birthday  verses,  the 
longest  and  shortest  verse,  also  give  pleasing  variety. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  157 

MANNER  OF  PROCEDURE. 

1.  Read  or  narrate  a  portion  of  the  story. 

2.  Question  pupils  on  the  leading  points. 

3.  Lead  the  pupils  to  give  their  own  thoughts  of  its  mean- 
ing and  application. 

4.  Write  upon  the  board  the  Bible  precept  found  in  or  sug- 
gested by  the  lesson. 

5.  After  the  entire  story  has  been  given,  let  the  children 
give  or  write  the  story,  and  its  lesson  to  them. 

Each  day  allow  one  or  more  of  the  pupils  to  give  the  story  of 
the  previous  day,  in  order  that  they  may  more  plainly  see  the 
connection  between  the  old  and  the  new.  Show  pictures  rep- 
resenting the  scene,  when  possible.  Make  all  descriptions 
vivid  and  real. 

The  following  stories  were  taken  last  year  in  the  order  given: — 

1.  The  Garden  and  Its  Inhabitants. 

2.  Joseph  and  His  Brethren. 

3.  The  Wandering  Children  of  Israel.    Balaam's  Parables. 
4   Gideon. 

5.  Samson,  Samuel  and  Saul. 

6   The  Shepherd  Boy  that  Became  a  King. 

7.  Solomon  and  the  Queen  of  Sheba.    Emblem — Consider 
the  lilies,  etc. 

8.  Queen  Esther. 

9.  Daniel. 

10.  The  Great  Teacher. 
The  following  gives  the  division  of  the  first  story  for  each  day 
of  the  month : 
The  Garden  and  its  Inhabitants. 

a.  Description,  as  given  beautifully  by  Rothingham,  in 
Ills  "Stories  of  the  Patriarchs." 
6.  Outside  the  Gate. 

c.  Quarrel  of  the  First  Brothers. 

d.  Death  of  Abel.     Cain's  Flight. 

e.  The  Ark  and  the  Flood. 


158  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

/.  Tower  of  Babel. 

g.  Abraham's  Childhood. 

h.  Abraham's  Journey. 

i.  Visit  of  the  Angels. 

j.  Destruction  of  Sodom. 

k.  Lot's  Escape. 

l.   Sacrifice  of  Isaac. 

m.  Isaac's  Two  Sons. 

n.  Jacob  Cheats  Esau  of  His  Birthright. 

0.  Jacob  Receives  his  Father's  Blessing. 

p.  Jacob's  Flight. 

q.  His  Dream. 

r.  History  of  the  Twenty  Years  He  Remained  with  His 
Uncle. 

s.  His  Return. 

t  Meeting  of  the  Brothers. 

u.  Review  and  Application  to  us. 
The  stories  were  given  in  this  order  that  pupils  might  study 
them  in  connection  with  the  country  in  which  they  were 
located.  "The  Children  of  Israel"  were  studied  at  this  time 
because  the  Third  Grade  were  studying  and  moulding  the 
peninsula  of  Arabia.  The  Fourth  Grade  were  studying  and 
moulding  Africa— the  desert,  where  the  "Israelites  wandered 
forty  years,"  *'the  place  where  they  were  supposed  to  have 
crossed  the  Red  Sea,"  "the  mount  where  Moses  received  the 
Ten  Commandments,"  and  "Egypt"  could  be  located;  thus  ad- 
ding interest  to  both  story  and  country. 

In  the  study  of  Daniel,  a  description  of  Babylon,  its  walls, 
gates,  towers  and  hanging  gardens  make  it  more  real.  Repre- 
senting the  position  of  the  armies,  in  sand,  when  David  killed 
Goliath,  will  add  interest  also. 

Some  books,  valuable  for  their  simple,  attractive  language 
and  illustrations: — "Stories  of  the  Patriarchs,"  "Joseph  and 
His  Brethren,"  "Line  Upon  Line,"  "Precept  Upon  Precept,'' 
**Stories  of  David,"  "Ben  Hur,"  extracts  from  ''Near  Home  and 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  159 

Far  Off,"   "Description  of  Jerusalem,"    "John  the   Baptist," 
"Christ's  Teachings  and  Death." 

FIFTH    AND   SIXTH   GRADES. 

In  opening  exercises  the  subject  of  behavior  affords  many  fruit- 
ful topics  for  conversation. 

As  to  place,  the  work  should  include  the  behavior  of  the 
child: 

1.  In  the  school-room. 

2.  On  the  play-ground. 

3.  On  the  street. 

4.  At  home. 

5.  In  railway  cars  and  other  public  places. 

By  questions  and  illustrations,  the  children  are  led  to  see 
that  behavior  in  the  school-room  includes  obedience,  honesty, 
silence,  industry,  kindness,  neatness,  politeness,  punctuality, 
etc. 

In  considering  each  of  these  topics,  the  meaning  of  the  term 
should  be  understood.  The  children  may  refer  to  dictionaries 
for  meaning,  and  the  teacher,  by  illustrations  and  otherwise, 
may  assist  in  making  the  meaning  clear. 

To  whom  and  by  whom  must  obedience  be  rendered  in  the 
school-room,  and  why,  may  be  discussed  by  the  children,  the 
teacher  leading  in  the  discussion. 

Illustrations  may  be  called  for,  and  the  children  will  cite 
many  instances  where  the  law  of  obedience  is  violated. 

After  discussing  this  law  in  a  general  way,  the  teacher  may 
ask  for  individual  experiences ;  as,  How  many  of  you  ever  vio- 
lated the  law  of  obedience  in  the  school-room  ?  Probably  all 
will  raise  hands,  but  if  not,  call  upon  those  who  are  ready  and 
willing  to  speak  of  their  own  faults,  and  the  others  will  reach 
that  point  sooner  or  later. 

In  like  manner,  each  of  the  above  topics  may  be  discussed 
from  day  to  day,  as  time  permits. 


160  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

The  interest  will  be  greatly  enhanced  by  calling  upon  pupils 
to  decide  whether  an  illustration  given  is  right  or  wrong,  and 
by  calling  special  attention  to  those  that  are  particularly  good. 

Of  course  the  accuracy  of  the  statement,  and  of  the  language 
used  must  be  noticed  in  every  case. 

After  the  discussion  of  all  or  many  of  these  laws,  the  chil- 
dren will  readily  see  that  a  single  act  may  be  a  violation  of 
several  laws. 

If  a  pupil  whispers  to  his  neighbor  he  has  violated  the  fol- 
lowing laws  :  Obedience,  silence,  politeness,  kindness,  and 
honesty.  The  children  will  probably  see,  and  give  all  these. 
But  if  one  does  not  see  just  how  obedience  or  some  other  law 
mentioned  has  been  violated,  some  one  else  may  explain  to 
him. 

Following  this,  illustrations  may  be  given  by  pupils,  and  the 
school  decide  how  many  and  what  laws  are  violated. 

When  all  of  these  topics  are  carefully  discussed  with  refer- 
ence to  the  school-room,  the  children  may  be  called  upon  to 
decide  which  of  these  will  apply  to  the  play-ground,  which,  if 
any,  shall  be  discarded,  and  whether  any  new  topics  may  be 
added. 

The  same  plan  may  be  followed  with  regard  to  the  other 
places  mentioned. 

The  benefits  of  such  discussions  are  manifold. 

1.  The  children  themselves  are  led  to  decide  upon  a  course 
of  action  to  be  followed  out. 

2.  They  become  conscious  that  every  action  they  put  forth 
is  iu  obedience  to  or  in  violation  of  law,  and  they  will  thus  be 
led  to  reflect  upon  what  they  do  before  the  deed  is  done. 

3.  The  results  of  the  violations  of  these  laws  will  be  care- 
fully traced  in  many  cases,  and  the  children  are  led  to  see  that 
the  deed  returns  to  the  doer. 

4.  They  learn  to  discriminate  and  judge  for  themselves; 
and  to  rely  upon  themselves ;  thus  making  the  school,  in  a  great 
measure,  control  itself. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  Itl 

Other  exercises  are : 

1.  The  studying  and  committing  of  beautiful  poems. 

2.  Investigation  of  Scripture  texts. 

3.  Consideration  of  Bible  stories,  etc. 

CONDUCT  IN  RELATION  TO  SELF. 

*HuMAN  RESPONSIBILITY  Is  the  fundamental  principle 
of  morals,  or  conduct.  As  a  special  being  of  nature,  it 
is  the  duty  of  the  individual  to  realize  in  himself  the 
ideal  of  humanity.  This  demands  the  use  of  his  natural 
being  as  a  means,  and  not  as  an  end. 

1.  He  must  foster  and  preserve  his  physical  organ- 
ism. 

2.  He  must  learn  to  absorb  his  whole  endeavor  fu 
the  pursuit  of  a  rational  end — some  particular  avoca- 
tion in  life. 

3.  He  must  confine  his  gratification  of  the  natural 
wants  within  proper  limits,  and  learn  to  sacrifice  them 
for  higher  duties. 

4.  Through  this  self-control  he  must  strive  for  self- 
culture,  sacrificing  his  natural  being  for  his  spiritual 
being. 

These  duties  to  self,  apparently  immediate,  are  how- 
ever, only  contingent  upon  broader  duties  which  he 
owes  to  others.' 

CONDUCT  IN  RELATION  TO  OTHERS. 

The  individual  is  not  able  to  achieve  his  highest  end 
and  aim  directly  through  himself,  but  only  through 
combination  with  his  fellow-men.  This  combination 
lias  four  stages: 

12 


162  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

1.  The  family. 

2.  The  church. 

3.  Social  and  business  society. 

4.  The  state;    including  the  school  as  an  instru- 
ment of  the  state. 

Conduct  in  the  sphere  of  the  church  is  considered 
here,  as  previously  given,  only  in  so  far  as  the  school 
prepares  the  child  to  enter  upon  the  relations  involved 
-in  the  church,  as  a  higher  institution. 

IN  THE  FAMILY^. 

Within  the  family  the  interest  of  each  is  that  of  all 
in  a  special  natural  sense.  The  reciprocal  duties  of 
parents  and  children,  of  brothers  and  sisters,  of  husband 
and  wife  form  a  special  code  distinguished  from  other 
spheres  of  morality  by  its  close  connection  with  natural 
impulse;  affection  and  reverence  form  its  foundation.  In 
this  sphere  isolated  interest  is  vicious  and  immoral ;  the 
community  is  the  unit.  A  transition  from  the  family 
to  civil  society  is  found  in  polite  society  wherein  there 
prevails  the  tone  of  the  family  elevated  to  a  general 
demeanor.  The  essence  of  politeness  consists  in  persis- 
tently treating  the  special  individual  with  whom  one  has  re- 
lations, as  an  ideal  being.  Every  human  being  has  in 
himself  the  possibility  of  ideal  humanity.  Polite  con- 
duct consists  in  regulating  one's  behavior  toward  him 
by  this  ideal.  Consequently  politeness  requires  us  to 
ignore  all  personal  defects,  not  alluding  to  our  own  or 
to  those  of  others :  even  rudeness  toward  us  passes  un- 
noticed and  receives  only  courteous  treatment  in  return. 


THE    THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  163 

Within  the  family  and  within  polite  society  these  un- 
selfish and  refined  manners  must  prevail.  It  is  not 
however  sufl&cient  for  the  human  spirit  that  it  remain 
within  such  limits.  They  serve  only  as  polish  to 
human  actions  which  penetrate  deeper  the  essence  of 
personality. 

IN  THE  BUSINESS  WORLD. 

In  civil  society  proper  we  have  combination  by 
means  of  division  of  labor  and  commerce.  Each  works 
for  himself  and  has  in  so  far  a  selfish  end;  but  he 
achieves  it  through  devoting  himself  to  the  gratification 
of  some  want  of  his  fellow-men.  Thus  his  selfishness 
•is  mediated,  and  its  quality  changed.  In  the  field  of 
productive  industry  the  individual  does  not  any  longer 
act  from  the  impulse  of  affection,  or  pity ;  he  helps  oth- 
ers as  the  organized  means  of  self-aggrandizement;  he 
does  not  treat  others  as  abstract  ideals  merely  (the  po- 
lite world);  but  he  treats  them  as  free  personal  units 
concretely  realized  in  the  ownership  of  property.  The 
fact  of  realization  of  personality  through  property  gives 
an  externality  to  the  whole  code  of  duties  belonging  to 
civil  society.  One  man  deals  with  another  as  an  abstract 
legal  person  in  business  transactions  which  form  the 
real  practical  interest.  Honesty  and  integrity,  prudence 
and  policy,  punctuality  and  regularity  are  the  cardinal 
virtues  here. 

IN  THE  STA  IE. 

In  the  state  mere  natural  affection  and  courtesy  to 
the  ideal — the  principles  of  the  family  and  polite  society 
— as  well  as  the  pursuit  of  individual  gain,  which  finds 


164  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

its  sphere  in  civil  society,  are  subordinated  to  an  actual 
ideal,  that  of  justice.  Man  is  here  complemented  so 
that  whatsoever  he  does  returns  through  the  state  to 
himself  and  he  becomes  actually  free  and  self-deter- 
mined What  polite  society  assumes  and  makes  into  an 
appearance,  is  in  the  state  realized  as  an  actual,  but  in 
such  a  way  that  complete  responsibility  attaches  to  the 
individual. 

IN  THE  SCHOOL. 

To  cultivate  behavior  the  school  as  an  instrument  of 
the  state,  presents  a  wide  field  for  the  pupil's  activity. 

The  school  is  a  little  world  in  which  the  pupils  devise 
and  carry  out  schemes  as  in  the  world  without,  in  which 
individual  interests  are  often  concurrent,  and  not  sel- 
dom in  opposition ;  but  where  both  the  concurrence 
and  the  opposition  give  rise  to  indefinite  activity. 

There  are  constant  opportunities  for  embodying  in  ac- 
tion the  virtues  of  truthfulness,  justice,  and  benevo- 
lence, or  for  being  swayed  by  their  opposites. 

The  virtues  to  be  manifested  toward  superiors  are 
drawn  out  in  the  respect  and  obedience  exacted  by  the 
teacher,  or  give  place  to  the  opposite  vices  of  insolence 
and  insubordination. 

In  the  performance  of  duty,  the  moral  qualities  of 
diligence  and  resolution  may  be  steadily  fostered ;  or  the 
opposite  vices  of  idleness  and  sluggishness;  while  the 
routine  of  the  school  may  be  gone  through  either  with 
punctuality  or  the  reverse.  The  teacher's  duty  with 
respect  to  this  activity  of  the  school  in  all  of  its  phases 
is  to  regulate  it  and  increase  it. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  165 


He  sees  it  to  a  great  extent  manifested  in  the  course 
of  engagements  conducted  by  himself  or  under  his 
superintendence  ;  he  can  control  its  defects,  and  can 
point  the  way  to  such  improvement  as  is  practicable. 
Much  of  it  comes  to  his  knowledge  through  report,  or 
through  casual  inquiry.  But  in  great  measure  it  goes 
on  beyond  the  teacher's  observation,  and  in  a  sphere 
over  which  he  has  no  direct  control.  In  the  play- 
ground this  activity  of  the  school  exercises  its  greatest 
influence  for  good  or  for  evil.  If  the  spirit  that  presides 
there  is  in  conformity  with  his,  then  its  intercourse  is 
for  good;  if  any  there  retain  in  their  hands  a  command- 
ing influence  over  their  companions,  but  of  a  difi'erent 
tendency,  the  activity  of  the  school  will  develop  into 
bad  habits.  The  teacher  can  only  control  it  in  this 
sphere  by  establishing  in  the  school  a  sound  public  opin- 
ion^ the  reflex  of  his  oivn,  which  shall  make  itself  felt 
every  where — a  difficult  task,  and  only  to  be  accom- 
plished by  him  who  has  the  interest  of  his  pupils  at  hearty 
and  who  to  that  benevolence  adds  the  force  of  character 
and  tact  of  managevient  necessary  to  secure  personal 
ascendency  over  others.  But  difficult  as  it  may  be,  it 
must  be  accomplished,  if  the  teacher  would  have  his 
influence  constantly  at  work  on  his  pupils.  When  there 
is  a  bad  state  of  feeling  in  school  between  teacher  and 
pupils,  their  activity  will  be  restrained  and  insincere  in 
his  presence ;  they  will  be  afraid  to  act,  and  thus  reveal 
their  sentiments  to  him  whom  they  mistrust.  This  bad 
relation  will  usually  carry  with  it  an  unsatisfactory  re- 
lation among  the  pupils  themselves;  restrained  by  no 


166  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

central  influence  they  will  be  apt  to  separate,  according 
to  their  several  interests,  into  parties  having  no  good 
will  toward  one  another,  and  thus  the  malevolent  dis- 
positions will  be  stimulated  into  preponderating  activity. 
The  teacher'  is  responsible  for  establishing  confidence 
between  the  pupils  and  himself,  and  among  the  pupils 
toward  one  another,  under  the  genial  influences  of 
which  the  right  activity  may  spring  up  and  gain 
strength,  and  the  wrong  wither  away  for  the  want  of 
room  for  its  display. 

The  main  difference  between  the  family  and  the 
school  as  places  of  moral  instruction  is  this :  That  in 
the  former  the  parent  sees  precisely  what  is  wanting  to 
the  child's  knowledge  from  having  him  so  constantly  in 
his  presence  and  observing  his  conduct.  The  family 
instruction  is  therefore  more  spontaneous  and  better 
regulated  to  the  necessities  of  the  case  than  that  of  the 
school  can  ever  be ;  for  the  teacher  must,  in  the  nature 
of  things,  proceed  less  by  special  requirements  at  the 
moment  than  by  consideration  of  the  general  training 
which  the  pupil  will  require  to  fit  him  for  life.  But  this 
comparative  disadvantage  under  which  the  teacher 
labors  only  supplies  an  additional  reason  why  he  should 
strive,  with  all  the  resources  of  his  art,  to  make  the  in- 
struction he  gives  the  more  impressive ;  and  he  is  not 
altogether  without  compensation.' 

'The  more  formal  teaching  of  a  school  may,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  be  supplemented  by  such  instruction 
as  is  naturally  elicited  from  the  incidents  of  the  family- 
circle.     There  are  school  cases  equally  with  family  cases 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  167 

which  the  teacher  has  the  means  of  observing;  and,  if 
he  observe  at  all,  he  will  find  a  greater  variety  of  them 
than  any  one  family  is  likely  to  supply,  illustrative  of 
both  virtues  and  vices.  His  object  should  be  to  turn 
them  to  the  benefit  of  the  school,  which  has,  more  or 
less,  been  witness  of  them.  If  he  cannot  do  this  with- 
out exposure  of  individual  pupils,  he  cannot  profitably 
do  it  all.  If  he  does  it  with  direct  and  recognized  per- 
sonal reference  he  will  be  suspected  both  by  the  pupil 
and  by  the  school  of  doing  it  with  personal  motives, 
either  with  the  view  of  establishing  his  authority  or  of 
gratifying  his  dislikes.  But  the  judicious  teacher  will 
find  it  by  no  means  impossible  to  handle  cases  in  an 
indirect  way  so  that  all  his  statements  shall  seem  to  be 
naturally  suggested  by  the  train  of  his  story,  so  that  the' 
allusions  shall  never  be  suspected  of  personal  intention. 
The  penetration  into  their  experience  which  the  sKilful 
management  of  such  cases  shows,  will  affect  them  with 
a  power  which  no  other  channel  of  instruction  can  at- 
tain. Virtues  should  be  illustrated  this  way  as  well  as 
vices ;  it  is  in  every  way  desirable  that  he  should  show 
the  same  insight  in  dealing  with  the  one  as  in  dealing 
with  the  other,  and  that  he  should  appear  zealous  and 

ratified  to  recognize  the  good  that  may  be  done  in 
-chool,  as  well  as  ready  to  reprimand  the  evil.  The 
observant  teacher  will  see  from  this  how  much  he  will 

lin  in  influence  as  an  educator  by  any  intimate  ac- 
juaintance  he  may  set  himself  to  acquire  of  the  school 
life.'* 

*  ABBOIT^ 


168  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

SELF  SACRIFICE. 

^In  these  spheres  of  action  there  lies  at  the  basis  the 
fundamental  idea  of  the  distinction  of  man  as  a  natural 
being  (mere  animal)  from  man  as  human  (elevated  into 
his  ideal  through  culture.)  Thus  the  fundamental  basis 
is  SELF-SACRIFICE,  employing  as  its  conviction  responsi- 
bility y  i.  e.  the  insight  into  the  necessity  of  its  own 
agency  in  attaining  its  true  self  by  the  suppression  of  its 
natural  appetites.  Self-control,  self-denial,  temperance, 
neatness,  cleanliness,  self-respect, — these  are  the  various 
species  that  fall  immediately  under  this  general  cate- 
gory. 

OBEDIENCE. 

Obedience  is  the  general  mode  of  the  conformity  of 
the  individual  to  general  rules,  laws,  and  prescribed 
forms  of  activity.      This   is   one  side  of   self-sacrifice. 

In  the  practice  of  duty,  obedience  is  the  first  condi- 
tion :  obey  the  higher,  repress  the  lower.  In  obedience, 
reference  is  had  to  what  is  external.  But  it  is  the  ex- 
ternal to  mere  natural  being  only.  Obedience  is  the 
mediation  by  which  the  true  self  is  realized  and  the 
illusive  self  of  mere  natural  impulse  renounced. 
Obedience  has  several  phases  : 

a.   Order  and  regularity — conformity  to  the  rhythm 
that  governs  external  things. 

h.  Punctuality  or  conformity  to  the  external  re- 
quirements of  time  and  place. 

c.  Perseverance — conformity  to  purpose. 

d.  Earnestness —confonmty  of  outward  endeavor 
to  inward  resolution. 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  169 

e.  Justice — conformity  to  the  universal  (self-meas- 
ured) standard  of  action. 

/.  Truthfulness — conformity  of  utterance  (speech 
and  behavior)  to  reality. 

g.  Industry — conformity  of  activity  to  the  chan- 
nels prescribed  by  society  so  that  what  one  does  is 
directly  for  others,  indirectly  for  one's  self. 

The  first  requisite  of  the  school  is  order:  each  pupil 
must  be  taught  first  and  foremost  to  conform  his  beha- 
vior to  a  general  standard.  Only  thus  can  the  school  as 
a  community  exist  and  fulfill  its  functions.  In  the  out- 
set therefore  the  group  of  virtues  above  referred  to  are 
taught  the  pupil,  and  these  are  taught  so  thoroughly, 
and  so  constantly  enforced,  that  they  become  fixed  in 
his  cliaracter.  The  method  of  this  moral  training  is, 
like  that  which  rules  everywhere  in  the  practical  world, 
one  of  division  and  repetition.  The  duty  of  being  a 
well-behaved  pupil  is  not  a  vague  generality.  It  divides 
into  specific,  well-defined  duties  : 

a.  Punctuality:  The  pupil  must  be  at  school  in 
time.  Sleep,  meals,  play,  business,  indisposition — all 
must  give  way  to  the  duty  of  obedience  to  the  external 
requirement  of  time.  Punctuality  does  not  end  with 
getting  to  school.  While  in  school  it  is  of  equal  impor- 
tance. Combination  cannot  be  achieved  without  it. 
The  pupil  must  have  his  lessons  ready  at  the  appointed 
time,  must  rise  at  the  tap  of  the  bell,  move  to  the  line, 
return;  in  short,  go  through  all  the  evolutions  with 
equal  precision. 

6.  Regularity  is  punctuality  reduced  to  a  system. 
Conformity  to  the  requirement  of  time  in  a  particular 


170  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

instance  is  punctuality  ;  made  general  it  becomes  regu- 
larity. Combination  in  school  rests  on  these  two  vir- 
tues. They  are  the  most  elementary  ones  of  the  moral 
code — its  alphabet.  Schools  achieved  a  high  rank  in 
this  respect  only  through  the  most  persistent  effort  on 
the  part  of  the  teachers.  The  community  submits  to 
regulations  patiently,  but  it  may  be  doubted  whether 
their  importance  is  fully  appreciated.  This  age  is  called 
the  age  of  productive  industry.  It  is  the  era  of  emancipa- 
tion of  each  and  every  member  of  society  from  the 
drudgery  of  slavery  to  his  natural  wants.  The  emanci- 
pation is  effected  through  machinery.  Machinery  during 
the  past  fifty  years  has  quadrupled  the  efficiency  of 
human  industry.  With  the  same  amount  of  labor  each 
man  may  obtain  four  times  the  amount  of  food,  cloth- 
ing, and  shelter,  or  for  one-fourth  of  the  labor  necessary 
fifty  years  ago  he  may  obtain  as  much,  as  the  laborer  of 
that  period  did.  Achievement  in  this  direction  has  but 
begun.  In  the  future  hovers  the  picture  of  a  humanity 
so  free  on  the  side  of  its  natural  wants  that  its  time  is 
its  own  for  spiritual  culture.  But  there  is  one  general 
training  especially  requisite  for  the  generations  of  men 
who  are  to  act  as  directors  of  machinery,  and  of  busi-. 
ness  that  depends  upon  it — this  training  is  in  the  habits 
of  punctuality  and  regularity.  A  human  being  may 
wait  for  the  arrival  of  another,  a  machine  will  not  make 
any  allowance  for  subjective  whims,  or  caprices,  or  fail- 
ures in  obedience  to  the  laws  of  time  and  space.  The 
fact  that  so  much  of  labor  depends  upon  machinery 
makes  itself  felt  throughout  all  occupations  of  life.    The 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  171 

necessity  of  conformity  to  the  time  of  the  train,  to  the 
starting  of  work  in  the  manufactory,  fixes  the  time  for 
the  minor  affairs  of  life  with  absolute  precision.  Only 
by  obedience  to  these  abstract  external  laws  of  time  and 
place  may  we  achieve  that  social  combination  necessary 
to  free  us  from  degrading  slavery  to  our  physical  wants 
and  necessities. 

But  the  school  makes  these  duties  the  ground  and 
means  of  higher  duties.  They  are  indispensable,  hut  no 
ultimatum.  They  render  possible  higher  spiritual  cul- 
ture. The  quick  and  prompt  obedience  of  the  pupil  in 
simple  mechanical  training,  renders  the  child  penetra- 
ble, and  accessible  to  lessons  of  higher  import.  To  this 
end  the  discipline  extends  to  calisthenics  ;  the  pupil  is 
taught  to  sacrifice  his  arbitrary  control  over  his  body 
and  to  combine  regularly  and  punctually  with  others 
in  imitating  prescribed  bodily  gestures  or  exercises. 
Thus  his  sense  of  rhythm — or  regular  combination  with 
others — is  further  developed.  Through  this  becomes 
possible  the  training  to  general  habits  of  proper  position 
for  sitting  and  standing,  proper  modes  of  speaking — 
addressing  others  ;  in  general,  the  formalities  of  polite 
intercourse.  The  highest  discipline  under  the  head  of 
ill  \  111  111  is  reached  in  vocal  music.  This  presupposes  in 
the  highest  degree  the  training  in  punctual  and  regular 
habits,  and  a  conscious  participation  in  the  result  is 
reached  by  the  pupil  through  his  enjoyment  of  the  har- 
mony he  assists  in  producing.  Here — in  vocal  music — 
the  external,  mechanical  aspect  of  discipline  softens, 
and  a  response  to  it  is  felt  in  the  deepest  inner  being  of 


172  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

the  soul — the  domain  of  feeling.     This  brings  us  to  the 
next  step  in  school  discipline. 

c.  Silence  is  the  basis  for  the  culture  of  internality 
or  reflection — the  soil  in  which  thought  grows.  The 
pupil  is  therefore  taught  habits  of  silence :  to  restrain 
his  natural  animal  impulse  to  prate  and  chatter,  or  to 
excite  attention  by  his  occupation  on  the  material  world 
around  him.  All  ascent  above  natural  being  arises 
through  this  ability  to  hold  back  the  mind  from  utter- 
ance of  the  immediate  impulse,  and  to  correct  its  one- 
sidedness  by  combination  and  generalization.  The 
largest  combination  and  widest  generalization  is  the 
deepest  and  truest.  Thus  silence  in  the  school-room  has 
a  twofold  significance.  It  is  necessary  to  the  attain- 
ment of  combination  with  others,  and  besides  this,  it  is 
a  direct  discipline  in  the  art  of  combining  the  diff'used 
and  feeble  efforts  of  the  pupil  himself.  He  begins  his 
career  with  mental  distraction,  everything  isolated  in 
his  mind,  and  learns  to  connect  the  scattered  phases, 
classify  and  arrange  them,  and  thus  to  generalize  and 
reduce  them.  The  first  glance  does  not  suffice;  it  is  the 
repetition  of  mental  effort,  the  absorption  of  the  mind 
that  digests  the  multiplicity  before  it.  This  depends 
directly  upon  silence.  The  distraction  of  the  mind 
consequent  upon  garrulity,  or  the  occupation  of  any  of 
the  senses  exclusively,  prevents  reflection.  Silence  al- 
lows the  repose  of  the  senses  and  the  awakening  of 
insight  and  reflection.  In  our  schools  this  is  carried 
further  than  merely  negative  silence  and  the  pupil  is 
taught  the  difficult  but  essential  habit  of  absorption  in 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  173 

his  proper  task  even  when  a  lively  recitation  is  going  on 
with  another  class.  He  must  acquire  the  strength  of 
mind  (of  internality)  which  will  enable  him  to  pursue 
without  distraction  his  train  of  thought  and  study,  un- 
der any  external  conditions.  Out  of  this  discipline 
grow  attention,  memory,  thought — the  three  factors  of 
theoretic  culture.  The  culture  described  thus  far,  is 
very  formal  although  it  is  essential  to  all  that  follows. 
It  is  a  great  point  to  gain  so  much,  and  to  gain  it  by 
proper  means.  A  school  discipline  that  secured  this 
through  harsh,  rough  means,  through  appeals  to  cor- 
poral punishment,  would  break  down  the  deeper  sense 
of  honor  in  the  pupil. 

The  school  thereforeas  its  fourth  virtue  in  the  ascend- 
ing scale  inculcates  truthfulness. 

d.  Truth  is  the  basis  of  the  duties  of  a  man  toward 
others.  Truth  makes  free,  says  the  old  proverb.  No 
positive  relation  with  our  fellowmen  is  possible  except 
through  truth.  Untruth  is  the  essence  of  discord.  Earn- 
estness and  sincerity,  honesty  and  reliability  are  the  vir- 
tues that  rest  directly  on  truthfulness.  The  vices  found- 
ed on  neglect  of  this  duty  are  lying,  deceit,  hypocrisy, 
cheating,  and  all  manner  of  fraud;  its  effects  on  society 
are  to  produce  suspicion  and  distrust  among  men  and 
to  stifle  all  spiritual  relationship.  It  is  a  subtle  poison 
that  destroys  the  positive  benefits  that  may  be  derived 
from  the  institutions  of  society.  The  virtue  of  truth- 
fulness is  developed  in  a  twofold  way  in  the  school- 
room. First,  by  the  continual  discipline  of  the  recita- 
tion ;  the  pupil  is  required  to  be  accurate  and  compre- 


174  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

hensive  in  his  statements ;  he  is  taught  that  suppression 
of  essential  particulars  makes  his  statement  false  ;*  he  is 
held  strictly  accountable  to  know  what  he  says,  i.  e.,  to 
have  a  clear  conception  of  what  is  involved  in  the  words 
he  uses.  Very  much  of  the  untruth  and  consequent 
distrust  among  men  arises  in  the  first  instance  from  lack 
of  a  clear  insight  into  what  was  implied  by  the  words 
used.  It  is  only  one  step  from  a  lie  committed  by  mis- 
take to  a  lie  on  a  purpose ;  for  to  suffer  the  penalty  for 
a  supposed  vice  is  a  temptation  to  enjoy  its  supposed 
selfish  advantages.  Careful  attention  to  the  implica- 
tions of  one's  statements  is  the  first  step  in  the  inculca- 
tion of  truth ;  and  this  can  scarcely  find  a  better  disci- 
pline than  in  the  properly  conducted  recitation.  The 
second  mode  of  securing  truthfulness  is  the  direct  appli- 
cation of  discipline  to  the  behavior  of  the  pupil.  Any 
lack  of  truthfulness  in  the  pupil  reveals  itself  at  once  in 
his  struggles  to  conceal  his  misdemeanors.  It  is  an  ob- 
ject of  constant  care  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  sup- 
press lying  and  dishonesty  in  whatever  forms  they  may 
manifest  themselves.  The  admonition  of  the  teacher, 
the  disgrace  felt  at  exposure  in  presence  of  the  class,  are 
most  powerful  caustics  to  remove  this  moral  disorder. 

e.  The  duty  of  justice  next  follows  that  of  truth- 
fulness and  finds  partly  its  presupposition  in  the  latter. 
Justice  can  be  taught  only  in  a  community.  In  a  well- 
ordered  community  it  grows  spontaneously.  A  system 
of  measure  established,  by  which  conformity  to  rule  and 
right  is  rewarded  by  recognition,  and  all  breach  of  dis- 
cipline met  by  prompt  exposure,  appeals  constantly  to 


THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  175 

the  sense  of  justice  and  develops  its  normal  exercise.  A 
danger  lies,  however,  in  certain  baneful  practices  some- 
times adopted  by  educators.  On  the  supposition  that 
the  child  cannot  see  the  legitimate  and  healthy  results 
of  doing  his  duty  he  is  offered  a  special  reward  for  it. 
This  goes  far  to  sap  the  foundation  of  all  morality.  The 
feeling  of  responsibility  is  the  essence  of  virtue,  and  an 
extraneous  reward  held  up  as  the  end  sought  tends  to 
destroy  what  little  internal  self-determination  the  pupil 
may  possess.  The  distinction  between  the  inclination 
(the  "I  want")  of  the  child,  and  his  true  ideal  nature 
(expressed  in  ''I  ought")  should  be  continually  kept 
before  the  child  and  not  confused  by  concealing  the  duty 
under  some  shape  of  immediate  self-interest.  Doubt- 
less self-interest  lies  at  the  bottom  of  all  virtue,  for  man 
is  a  self-related  being ;  but  its  circle  is  so  large  that  no 
one  can  perceive  its  full  return  in  an  individual  instance, 
and  the  only  guide,  at  all  safe,  is  duty  pure  and  simple. 
The  little  community  of  the  school-room,  filled  with 
fifty  or  sixty  children  presents  a  miniature  world.  There 
are  children  of  the  wealthy  and  of  the  indigent,  children 
of  talent,  and  children  of  slow,  imprisoned  intellects ; 
some  with  quick  theoretical,  some  with  strong  practical 
tendencies;  some  with  deep  spiritual  instincts,  others 
with  base  brutal  ones.  External  dress  and  carriage,  and 
use  of  speech  vary  accordingly.  Before  the  school-room 
ideal  all  prerogatives  vanish  and  each  is  equal  in  that 
respect ;  the  standard  of  comparison  shall  be  the  work 
done,  its  quality  and  its  quantity.  From  tlie  very  outset 
the  child  learns  to  distinguish  essential  humanity  from 


176  THE    THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

its  accidental  surroundings.  Keenness  of  perception, 
moral  integrit}^  practical  sagacity,  these  are  the  triumph- 
ant powers  of  the  good  school.  Can  there  be  a  better 
soil  for  the  growth  of  moral  responsibility  or  a  sense  of 
justice  ? 

KINDNESS. 

The  other  side  of  self-sacrifice  is  kindness  in  its  varied 
species  included  under  the  terms  of  sympathy,  forbear- 
ance, considerateness,  mercy,  benevolence,  charity,  phi- 
lanthropy. Kindness  is  akin  to  politeness  and  cour- 
tesy, in  that  it  looks  upon  the  human  being  as  embody- 
ing the  ideal  of  humanity,  no  matter  what  forms  he 
wears ;  but  it  differs  from  courtesy  and  is  superior  to  it, 
in  that  it  sees  also  the  real,  its  imperfections  and  limita- 
tions. It  does  not  merely,  like  justice  in  the  state,  hold 
up  in  the  face  of  each,  the  mirror  of  his  deed,  but  re- 
gards this  as  no  ultimatum  and  affirms  the  ideal  to  be 
the  true  final  aim  and  destiny  of  the  individual,  to 
whom  it  offers  aid  and  comfort.  It  seeks  to  remove  the 
imperfections  and  limitations  of  humanity  without  in- 
jury to  the  individual.  Justice  does  not  respect  particu- 
larity— kindness  does  respect  it.  In  kindness  or  love 
the  universal  is  carried  into  the  particular  (descends 
into  it)  without  destroying  it,  but  with  the  design  of 
drawing  up  to  it  the  latter.  Kindness  therefore  is  the 
moral  duty  that  approaches  nearest  to  religion  and 
forms  the  connecting  link  with  it.  Like  the  sense 
of  justice,  it  requires  a  community  for  its  culture — 
a  community  which,  like  the  school,  brings  together 
all  classes  and    conditions,  and  subjects  them   to  the 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  177 

— • 

same  trials  and  the  same  standard  of  success.  The 
feeling  of  justice  fostered  by  a  constant  opportunity  to 
see  through  the  adventitious  wrappings  of  social  rank 
and  condition  and  observe  the  real  substance  of  the 
character,  prepares  the  basis  for  kindness.  The  discre- 
pancy between  good  intent  and  deserts,  which  arouses 
childish  sympathy  most  readily,  is  the  first  incitement. 
Justice  proclaims  that  seeming  and  good  intent  are  not 
sufficient— there  must  be  adequate  performance.  If 
this  principle  did  not  prevail  in  society  and  the  moral 
world  at  large,  there  would  be  no  more  strenuous  exer- 
tion to  growth  ;  the  wish  would  be  sufficient.  But  the 
good  intention  baffled  of  its  actual  fruition  through 
inadequate  performance  is  ever  an  object  that  excites 
deepest  sympathy  and  commiseration  in  the  kind  heart. 
Not  only  the  good  intention  is  the  object  of  kindness, 
but  even  the  depraved  and  corrupt  excites  pity.  The 
trials,  that  all  are  alike  subjected  to,  reveal  to  each  child- 
ish heart  the  temptations  and  struggles  with  passion 
and  impulse,  as  well  as  the  weakness  of  intellect  and 
will  that  belong  to  his  fellows.  Broad  human  sympa- 
thy grows  up  under  these  conditions  and  a  Christian 
civilization  finds  in  it  its  necessary  presuppositions. 

The  education  of  youth  by  means  of  private  tutoi-s 
essentially  lacks  the  whole  side  of  moral  education, 
such  as  is  found  in  the  good  school.'* 

♦W.  T.  Habbis. 


13 


>~^*^i 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


SCHOLARSHIP. 


INTELLECT,    sensibility,    will. 


METHOD. 

There  is  a  best  way  of  doing  everything,  if  it  be  but  to  boil  an  egg. 

—Emerson. 

"In  all  things  a  man  must  beware  of  so  conforming  himself,  as  to  crush 
his  nature,  and  forego  the  purpose  of  his  being.  We  must  look  to  other 
standards  than  what  men  may  say  or  think.  We  must  not  abjectly  bow 
down  before  rules  and  usages;  but  must  refer  to  principles  and  purposes.  We 
must  think,  not  whom  we  are  are  following,  but  what  we  are  doing.  If  not, 
why  are  we  gifted  with  individual  life  at  all?  Uniformity  does  not  consist 
with  the  higher  forms  of  vitality.  Even  the  leaves  of  the  same  tree  are  said 
to  differ,  each  one  from  all  the  rest.  And  can  it  be  good  for  the  soul  of  a 
man  with  a  biography  of  its  own  like  to  no  one  else's,  to  subject  itself  with- 
out thought  to  the  opinions  and  ways  of  others ;  not  to  grow  into  symmetry 
but  to  be  moulded  down  into  conformity?" 


WHAT  IS  METHOD   IN    TEACHING? 

j®iHE  student-teacher,  as  a  preparation  for  his  work, 
'^    considers  a  field  that  involves  four,  to  a  degree, 
distinct  phases. 

1.  That  in  which  he  deals  with  knowledge  in  order 
to  distinguish  its  parts  as  elements;  in  order  to  dis- 
cover the  relations  existing  among  the  elements;  in 
order  to  re-arrange,  classify,  and  systematize  the  ele- 
ments, or  the  isolated  points  of  knowledge  in  the  light 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  179 

of  relations.  This  is  the  region  of  scholarship.  In  it 
the  student  approaches  the  subjects  or  exercise-grounds, 
i.  e.  arithmetic,  geography,  etc.,  with  a  somewhat  vague, 
confused  comprehension  of  each ;  he  distinguishes  the 
different  facts  or  elements ;  compares  them,  discovering 
the  relations — essential,  non-essential,  the  similar,  and 
the  dissimilar,  and  then  synthesizes  the  remaining  ele- 
ments into  a  new  intellectual  whole.  In  this  phase  the 
essential  facts  of  a  subject  are  arranged  into  an  organic 
relation.     This  is  the  sphere  of  logical  system. 

2.  That  in  which,  by  introspection  of  his  own  men- 
tal phenomena,  and  by  aid  of  the  testimony  of  others, 
1.  e.  works  on  psychology,  he  becomes  conscious  of  the 
various  methods  by  which  the  mind  learns. 

This  is  the  region  of  study  in  which  he  perceives : 

a.  That  one  method  by  which  the  mind  learns,  is  to 
comprehend  vaguely  a  whole,  discriminate  the  parts  or 
elements ;  compare  the  elements  in  order  to  discover  the 
relations  of  similar  and  dissimilar. — Analysis. 

b.  That  one  of  its  methods  is  to  apprehend  the 
elements  that  are  similar  rejecting  the  unassimilative 
ones,  (abstraction) ;  to  create  from  the  similar  essential  ele- 
ments a  new  intellectual  product  or  whole. — Synthesis. 

c.  That  another  method  that  belongs  to  mind  is 
to  observe  in  a  number  of  objects,  elements  that  are 
similar,  conceive  these  similars  as  the  same,  (generaliza- 
tion), and  apply  to  this  element  a  term  common  to  it 
and  to  all  objects  that  have  it  as  their  characteristic 
mark. — Naming. 


180  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

d.  That  a  fourth  method  of  the  mind  is  to  hold 
before  itself  a  general  element  or  elements  and  compare 
objects  with  this  general  idea,  rejecting  those  that  are 
devoid  of  it  and  grouping  those  marked  by  its  pres- 
ence.— Classification. 

e.  That  another  method  is  to  take  the  classifica- 
tion at  any  given  stage  and  extend  by  inference  the 
generalization  to  objects  that  have  never  been  within 
the  mind's  experience,  thus  creating  a  general  or  univer- 
sal.— Induction. 

f.  That  a  method  of  the  mind  is  to  employ  the 
generals  or  universals  furnished  by  induction  or  intui- 
tion as  a  means  of  obtaining  individual  truths  in  regard 
to  individual  objects. — Deduction. 

This  is  the  phase  of  general  method. 

3.  The  region  in  which  he  becomes  conscious, 
through  introspection,  and  through  testimony,  i.  e. 
psychological  works,  of  the  mental  methods  above  in- 
dicated, and  that  they  are  organically  related ;  of  the 
relation  to  these  methods,  of  consciousness,  attention, 
memory,  imagination,  sensibility  and  will ;  of  the  con- 
ditions of  these  methods  of  mental  activity,  their  under- 
lying laws,  and  their  results  or  products.  This  is  the 
sphere  of  psychological  system. 

4.  The  fourth  phase  of  the  teacher's  investigation 
is  that  in  which  he  considers  the  principles  employed  in 
adapting  the  subject-matter  of  the  various  branches  of 
learning  to  the  capacities  of  the  learner's  mind.  This  is 
the  phase  in  which  he  studies  the  science  and  the  art  of 
adjusting  objects  or  ideas  to  the  actual  mental  condition 


THE   THEORY  OF  THE   SCHOOL.  181 

of  the  pupils  in  order  that  they  may  give  exercise  to 
and  be  comprehended  through  this  or  that  faculty,  at 
one  or  another  of  the  stages  of  development.  This 
constitutes  the  province  of  method  in  school  education. 

It  is  evident  from  the  above  distinctions  that  the  ma- 
terial presented  under  method  in  relation  to  the  various 
subjects  is  not  strictly  either  system  or  method ;  but  it  is, 
in  any  given  case,  the  system  of  the  subject  modified  in 
general  by  the  idea  of  method.  The  work  given  is  to 
be  viewed  as  a  basis  for  the  discussion  of : 

a.  The  psychological  laws  especially  applicable. 

b.  The  principles  that  determine  the  adjustment 
of  subject-matter  to  its  appropriate  faculty. 

c.  The  determination  of  suitable  devices. 

COMENIUS    IDEA    OF   METHOD. 

"  Reformation  is  possible.  I  undertake  an  organiza- 
tion of  schools  whereby — 

1.  All  the  youth  may  be  instructed  save  those  to 
whom  God  has  denied  intelligence. 

2.  And  instructed  in  all  those  things  which  make  a 
man  wise,  good,  and  Holy. 

3.  And  thai^  as  a  preparation  for  life,  in  such  a  time 
as  will  set  him  free  before  he  is  adult. 

4.  And  thai^  without  blows,  severity,  or  compulsion, 
but  most  lightly,  gently,  and,  so  to  speak,  spontaneously. 

5.  And  that.,  in  such  a  way  that  they  shall  be 
trained,  not  to  specious  and  superficial,  but  to  true  and 
tiolid  learning,  and  to  the  use  of  their  own  faculties, 
— not  to  dependence  on   others  or  on  mere  memory. 


182  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

With  like  solidity  will  they  be  instructed  in  morality 
and  religion. 

6.  And  thaU  so  that  the  course  of  instruction  shall 
not  be  laborious  but  very  easy ;  four  hours  a  day  being 
sufficient. 

Order  it  is  that  is  the  soul  of  the  world;  order 
sustains  nature  in  all  its  parts. 

Order  too  is  the  eye  of  the  school,  and  we  must  take 
from  nature  the  order  of  the  school. 

Our  business  is  to  discover  from  the  indications  of 
nature  the  principles  which  underlie  the  answers  to  the 
following  queries : — 

1.  How  life  may  be  so  prolonged  as  to  enable  us 
to  learn  all  things. 

2.  How  arts  may  be  shortened  with  ^  view  to  rapid 
learning. 

3.  How  we  may  seize  the  right  occasions  for  learn- 
ing so  as  to  learn  Surely. 

4.  How  we  may  unlock  the  mind  so  as  to  learn 
Easily. 

5.  How  we  may  sharpen  the  understanding  so  as 
to  learn  Solidly. 

CERTO  OR  SURELY. 

How  are  we  to  teach  and  learn  surely ^  i.e.,  so  as  to  be  sure 
of  our  result  f 

This  is  to  be  done  by  finding  the  modus  operandi 
of  Nature,  and  accommodating  ourselves  to  that,  as 
follows : — 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  183 

FIRST  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Attends  to  a  Fit  Time. 

Birds  do  not  begin  the  work  of  multiplying  their 
species  in  winter.  So  with  other  natural  operations, 
such  as  the  growth  in  a  garden ;  the  season  determines 
all.  Right  in  the  teeth  of  this,  schools  do  not  choose  a 
fit  time  for  exercising  the  minds  of  pupils ;  and  they  do 
not  so  accurately  arrange  the  exercises  as  to  insure  that 
all  things  advance  infallibly  through  their  own  suc- 
cessive steps. 

Just  as  Nature  chooses  spring  as  the  time  of  prepara- 
tion for  future  products,  so  the  right  time  is  boyhood — 
the  spring  of  life.  The  right  time  of  the  day  is  the 
morning  hours,  which  is  the  spring  of  the  day ;  and  as 
to  arrangement  of  studies,  it  may  be  said,  generally, 
that  nothing  should  be  taught  except  when  it  can  be 
comprehended. 

SECOND  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Prepares  Material  for  Itself  Before  it  Gives  it  Form. 

In  the  school-books,  matter  does  not  precede  form. 
In  schools  also  they  teach  words  before  things — the 
mere  clothing  or  husk  of  words  before  the  reality  itself. 
Then  in  the  study  of  a  language  they  teach  form  before 
things,  because  they  teach  rules  before  words  and  sen- 
tences. They  give  rules  and  then  examples,  whereas 
the  light  ought  to  precede  that  which  it  is  intended  to 
light  up. 

In  all  instruction  it  is  necessary  that,  having  got 
ready  the  necessary  books  and  materials:  1.  The  un- 
derstanding be  instructed  before  speech  is  demanded ; 


184  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

2.  That  no  language  should  be  learned  from  a  Gram- 
mar, but  from  suitable  authors,  that  real  studies  should 
precede  organic  (formal),  and  that  examples  should 
come  before  rules. 

THIRD  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Takes  a  Fit  Subject  for  its  Operation,  or  at  least  Takes  Care 
that  it  be  Made  Fit. 

Wherefore — 

1.  Let  him  who  goes  to  school  remain  steadily 
there. 

2.  Whatever  study  is  taken  up  for  treatment,  let 
the  minds  of  the  pupils  be  predisposed  towards  it  (and 
prepared  for  it). 

3.  Let  all  obstacles  be  removed  out  of  the  path  of 
the  pupils. 

FOURTH    PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Does  Not  Confuse  Itself  in  its  Works,  but  Advances  Distinctly 
to  One  Thing  After  Another. 

Wherefore  let  pupils  be  occupied  with  only  one  study 
at  a  time ;  that  is  to  say,  teach  only  one  thing  at  a  time. 

FIFTH  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Begins  all  its  Operations  from  Within  Outwards,  e.g., 

A  tree  grows  from  within,  etc. 

Teachers  err  herein,  that  instead  of  diligently  explain- 
ing and  articulating  everything,  they  would  acquit 
themselves  of  their  task  of  instructing  youth,  by  speak- 
ing, dictating,  and  exercising  memory. 

Wherefore — 

1.  Let  the  understanding  of  things  be  first  formed, 
then  the  memory  exercised  on  what  is  understood,  and 


* 


THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  185 

only  in  the  third  place,  speech  and  hand  (i.  e.  writing). 
2.  The  teacher  should  attignd  to  every  way  of  open- 
ing the  intelligence,  and  must  apply  it  fitly. 

SIXTH    PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Begins  all  its  Formation  from  Generals,  and  thence  Proceeds 

to  Specialize — e.g., 

It  warms  and  nourishes  the  whole  mass  of  the  egg, 
and  does  not  form  first  the  head,  then  the  wings,  then 
the  feet,  but,  having  warmed  the  whole,  it  sends  its 
creative  force  into  the  special  parts,  and  there  specializes. 
So,  a  painter  in  painting  a  portrait  does  not  draw  first 
the  nose,  then  the  ears,  etc.,  but  outlines  the  whole  man 
on  the  canvas  roughly  with  chalk,  and  then  proceeds  to 
fill  in.  So  with  instruction,  the  outline  should  first  be 
given. 

Wherefore — 

1.  From  the  very  beginning  of  their  instruction, 
the  (principles  or)  essential  groundwork  of  all  learning 
should  be  given. 

2.  Every  language,  science,  or  art  should  first  be 
learned  in  its  simplest  rudiments.  Thus  the  idea  of 
the  whole,  as  a  whole,  will  be  grasped ;  then,  more  fully, 
rules  and  examples  should  be  given ;  thereafter,  pecu- 
liarities and  anomalies ;  and  finally,  if  necessary,  com- 
mentaries, etc. 

SEVENTH  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  does  not  Proceed  per  Saltum,  but  Step  by  Step. 

The  hatching  goes  on  by  insensible  degrees.  So,  a 
man  building  a  house  does  not  begin  from  the  top  but 
from  the  foundation,  and  step  by  step  he  rears  his  struc- 
ture. 


186  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

Wherefore — 

1.  The  whole  sphere  of  studies  should  be  dis- 
tributed carefully  among  the  successive  classes  of  the 
school  in  such  a  manner  that  the  earlier  study  always 
prepares  the  way  for  what  is  to  follow,  and,  as  it  were, 
lights  the  path  to  it. 

2.  The  time  at  the  teacher's  disposal  should  be 
carefully  distributed,  so  that  its  own  peculiar  task  may 
await  every  year^  month,  day,  hour. 

3.  This  distribution  of  the  time  should  be  most 
closely  attended  to,  so  that  nothing  may  be  passed  over, 
and  nothing  put  in  its  wrong  order. 

EIGHTH  PRINCIPLE, 

Nature,  When  it  Once  Begins,  Does  Not  Stop  Till  it  Has  Completed 
its  Task. 

Wherefore — 

1.  He  who  is  handed  over  to  the  school  should  be 
retained  there  until  he  is  ready  to  come  forth  an  in- 
structed, moral,  and  religious  man. 

2.  The  school  should  be  in  an  undisturbed  locality. 

3.  Wha,t  has  been  laid  down  to  be  done  should  be 
strictly  carried  on  on  the  lines  laid  down,  and  no  gap 
permitted. 

4.  No  one  should  be  allowed  to  absent  himself  on 
any  pretext. 

NINTH  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Carefully  Avoids  Whatever  is  Contrary  to  its  Operations, 
or  Hurtful. 

Wherefore — 

1.  Permit  a  scholar  the  use  of  no  books  save  those 
which  have  to  do  with  his  own  class. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  187 

2.  The  books  should  be  so  constructed  that  they 
may  with  truth  be  called  channels  of  Wisdom,  Morality, 
and  Piety. 

3.  Dissolute  associates  in  or  out  of  school  are  not 
to  be  tolerated. 

FACILE,   OR  EASILY. 

We  have  exhibited  the  principles  in  accordance  with 
which  the  work  can  be  done  with  certainty.  Now  we 
proceed  to  show  that  it  can  also  be  done  easily  and 
pleasantly.  This  will  be  the  case  if  we  attend  to  the 
following  ten  principles  (many  of  which  repeat  what  has 
been  already  laid  down). 

1.  Let  the  education  begin  early,  before  the  mind  is 
corrupted. 

2.  Let  it  be  done  with  due  preparation  of  the  mind. 

3.  Let  it  proceed  from  the  more  general  to  the 
special. 

4.  And  from  the  easy  to  the  more  difficult.  • 

5.  Let  no  one  be  weighted  with  too  much  to  learn. 

6.  Let  progress  be  slow  everywhere. 

7.  Let  the  intellect  be  forced  to  nothing  save  what 
it  spontaneously  desires  in  accordance  with  its  age  and 
with  right  method. 

8.  Let  everything  be  communicated  through  the 
senses. 

9.  And  turned  to  present  use. 

10.  Let  all  things  be  taught  according  to  one  and 
the  same  method. 

Let  us  follow  the  steps  of  Nature  as  illustrative  of  the 
above  principles. 


188  THE   THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

FIRST  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Begins  from  Pure  Elements. 

The  egg  which  is  to  be  hatched  is  pure.  The  tender 
minds  we  seek  to  train  should  be  free  from  distractions 
and  uncorrupted. 

Wherefore — 

1.  Let  the  education  of  youth  begin  early. 

2.  Let  there  be  only  one  preceptor  in  each  subject 
for  each  pupil  (i.  e.  do  not  send  the  child  from  one  mas- 
ter to  another  in  the  same  subject). 

3.  Before  all,  let  the  morals  be  reduced  to  harmony 
under  the  influence  of  the  preceptor. 

SECOND  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Predisposes  Matter  so  That  it  Shall  Seek  Form. 

The  bird  hatched  desires  to  walk  and  to  peck,  and 
finally  desires  to  fly. 
Wherefore — 

1.  The  desire  of  knowing  and  learning  is  to  be 
stirred  up  in  boys  in  every  way. 

2.  Let  the  method  of  teaching  lessen  the  labour  of 
learning,  so  that  nothing  be  a  stumbling-block  to  the 
pupil  and  deter  from  perseverance  in  study. 

This  ardour  to  acquire  is  to  be  excited  by  parents, 
who  should  evince  their  respect  for  schoolmasters  and 
learning ;  by  teachers,  who  should  be  kind,  paternal, 
and  ready  to  commend ;  by  schools,  which  should  be 
pleasant  rooms,  well  lighted,  clean,  and  adorned  with 
pictures,  etc.;  by  the  things  which  the  pupils  study, 
which  should  be  so  presented  as  to  attract;  by  the 
method,  which  should  be  the  natural  method ;  and  by 


THE  THEORY   OF   THE  SCHOOL.  189 

magistrates,  who  should  be  present  at  examinations  and 
distribute  rewards. 

THIRD  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Draws  Out  All  Things  from  Beginnings,  which  in  Their  Bulk 
are  Small,  in  Their  Virtue  Strong. 

Note  in  connection  with  this — 

1.  That  every  art  be  summed  up  in  rules,  very 
short,  but  very  exact. 

2.  That  every  rule  be  conceived  in  words  as  brief  as 
they  are  lucid. 

3.  That  numerous  examples  be  given  with  each 
rule,  so  that  the  applications  of  the  rule,  however  vari- 
ous, may  be  clear. 

FOURTH  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Proceeds  from  the  More  Easy  to  the  More  Difficult. 

We  find  Latin  rules  taught  in  Latin — the  unknown 
by  the  equally  unknown,  and  many  other  faults  which 
will  be  amended  if 

1.  The  teacher  speak  the  same  vernacular  as  the 
boy. 

2.  If  all  explanations  of  things  be  given  in  a  knovm 
tongue. 

3.  If  every  grammar  and  lexicon  be  adapted  to  that 
tongue  (i.  e.  the  vernacular)  by  means  of  which  the  new 
is  to  be  learned. 

4.  If  the  study  of  the  new  tongue  advance  by  de- 
grees— the  pupil  being  taught  first  to  understand,  then 
to  write,  and  finally  to  speak  it  (which,  being  extempo- 
raneous, is  the  most  difficult). 

5.  If,  when  Latin  words  are  given  with  vernacular, 


190  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

the  vernacular  words,  as  being  best  known,  always  come 
-first. 

6.  If  the  material  of  study  be  so  arranged  that  the 
scholar  learns  first  that  which  is  nearest,  then  that 
which  is  near,  then  that  which  is  more  remote,  and 
finally  that  which  is  most  remote  {e.g.  do  not  seek  illus- 
trations from  theology  or  politics,  but  from  things  at 
hand  and  familiar). 

7.  If  the  senses  of  boys  be  first  exercised,  then  the 
memory,  then  the  intelligence,  and  finally  the  judg- 
ment. For  science  takes  its  beginning  from  the  senses, 
and  thence  passes  into  the  memory  through  imagina- 
tion, then  by  induction  of  singulars  an  understanding 
of  universals  is  formed,  and  finally  a  judgment  as  to 
things  understood  takes  effect,  giving  the  certitude  of 
science. 

FIFTH  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Does  Not  Overweight  Itself,  but  is  Content  with  Few  Things 
at  a  Time. 

It  does  not  demand  two  birds  out  of  one  egg. 

SIXTH  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Does  Not  Hurry  Itself,  but  Proceeds  Slowly— e.g., 

Slow  is  the  hatching  of  the  bird. 
Wherefore — 

1.  Spend  as  few  hours  as  possible  in  public  lessons; 
four  being  the  right  number,  as  many  more  being  left 
for  private  study. 

2.  Fatigue  the  memory  as  little  as  possible,  only 
fundamental  things  being  exacted,  all  else  being  allowed 
to  flow  freely. 


THE  THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  191 

3.  Proportion  all  things  to  the  capacity,  which, 
according  to  the  progress  of  years  and  studies,  will 
grow  of  itself. 

SEVENTH  PMNCIPLE. 

Nature  I*U8he8  Nothing  Forcibly  Forward,  Except  What,  Being  Already 
Inwardly  Matured,  Desires  to  Burst  Forth. 

The  bird  does  not  urge  its  young  to  fly  till  their 
wings  are  ready. 

Let  nothing,  then,  be  done  against  the  grain.  The 
want  of  desire  frequently  arises  from  want  of  previous 
preparation  and  explanation. 

Wherefore — 

1.  Let  nothing  be  attempted  with  youth  except 
those  things  which  their  age  and  ability  not  only  admit 
of  but  desire. 

2.  Let  nothing  be  prescribed  as  a  memory-task 
which  has  not  previously  been  thoroughly  understood. 

3.  Let  nothing  be  prescribed  to  be  done  till  the 
form  of  it  and  the  rule  of  imitation  have  been  suffi- 
ciently pointed  out  and  impressed. 

EIGHTH  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Assists  Itself  in  Every  Possible  Way— e.g., 

There  is  vital  warmth  in  the  egg  itself,  as  well  as  in 
the  maternal  incubator. 

Boys  must  be  so  far  assisted  as  to  understand  what  is 
given  them  to  do.  The  teacher  who  demands  a  task 
without  sufficient  explanation  and  preparation  is  as 
cruel  as  a  nurse  who  would  put  an  infant  on  the  ground 
and  tell  it  to  walk.  We  must  bear  patiently  with  weak- 
ness. 


192  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

Wherefore — 

1.  Let  no  stripes  be  inflicted  on  account  of  studies: 
(for  if  the  boy  does  not  learn,  whose  fault  is  it  save  the 
teacher's,  who  either  does  not  know  how  to  make  the 
pupil  docile,  or  does  not  care  to  do  it?). 

2.  Let  what  the  pupils  have  to  learn  be  so  placed 
before  them  and  explained  that  they  see  it  as  clearly  as 
their  own  five  fingers. 

3.  And  in  order  that  everything  may  be  imprinted 
the  more  easily,  let  the  senses  be  applied  to  the  subject 
as  often  as  possible — e.g.^  let  hearing  be  joined  with 
vision,  and  the  hand  with  speech.  It  is  not  enough  to 
tell  to  the  ears,  but  the  teacher  must  present  to  the 
eyes,  that  through  them  the  instruction  may  reach  the 
imagination.  Leave  nothing  until  it  has  been  im- 
pressed by  means  of  the  ear,  the  eye,  the  tongue,  the 
hand.  Write  up  on  the  walls  (or  draw)  the  substance 
of  your  teaching.  Thus  the  pupils  will  also  acquire  the 
habit  of  writing  down  in  their  note-books 

NINTH  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Produces  Nothing  the    Use  of  Which   is  Not  Ultimately 
Apparent— e.  g, 

Wings  and  feet  are  found  to  be  formed  for  flying  and 
running. 

Wherefore — 

Let  nothing  be  taught  except  for  manifest  use. 

TENTH  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Does  All  Things  Uniformly— e.g. 

One  bird  is  produced  in  the  same  way  as  all  other 
birds. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  193 

Wherefore — 

1.  Let  there  be  one  and  the  same  method  for  in- 
structing in  ail  sciences ;  one  and  the  same  in  all  arts ; 
one  and  the  same  in  all  tongues. 

2.  Let  there  be  for  all  school-exercises  the  same 
order  and  manner  of  procedure. 

3.  Use  the  same  editions  of  books  throughout. 

SOLIDE,    OR  SOLIDLY. 

Few  give  a  solid  amount  of  instruction  to  scholars. 
This  is  a  general  complaint. 
To  cure  these  evils — 

1.  Let  only  things  likely  to  be  of  solid  advantage 
be  treated  of. 

2.  All  these  should  be  taught  without  separating 
any  of  them  from  the  curriculum. 

3.  A  solid  basis  should  be  laid  for  each. 

4.  That  basis  should  be  laid  deep. 

5.  Let  everything  subsequently  aimed  at  rest  on 
these  same  foundations. 

6.  Wherever  distinctions  are  to  be  made,  let  these 
be  distinctly  and  most  articulately  made. 

7.  Let  all  studies  which  follow  be  founded  on  those 
that  go  before. 

8.  Let  all  things  which  as  a  matter  of  fact  cohere 
be  always  connected  in  teaching. 

9.  Let  everything  be  arranged  according  to  its  true 
relation  to  the  understanding,  the  memory,  and  the 
speech. 

10.  Let  everything  be  firmly  implanted  by  continual 
exercises. 

14 


194  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

FIRST  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Begins  Nothing  that  Will  be  Useless. 

Wherefore  in  schools — 

1.  Let  nothing  be  taught  which  is  not  of  the  most 
soUd  utility  for  this  life  and  the  next. 

2.  If  some  things  have  to  be  instilled  into  youth 
only  for  the  sake  of  this  life,  let  them  be  of  such  a  kind 
as  will  not  hinder  the  interests  of  the  eternal  life,  and 
as  will  produce  solid  fruit  for  this  life. 

SECOND  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Omits  Nothing  Likely  to  be  of  Benefit  to  the  Body  it  is  Forming. 

Therefore  it  is  that  in   schools  there   must  be  not 
merely  knowledge,  but  also  morals  and  piety. 

THIRD  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Does  Nothing  Without  a  Foundation  or  Root. 

Wherefore — 

1.  The  love  of  any  studies  that  are  begun  should 
be  excited  in  the  pupil. 

2.  The  idea  (i.  e.  outline  or  sketch)  of  the  subject 
to  be  taught — language  or  art — should  first  be  given 
before  going  to  particulars.  In  this  way  a  foundation 
is  laid  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil. 

FOURTH  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Sends  its  Roots  Deep. 

The  general  idea  of  the  subject  to  be  taught  must 
therefore  be  deeply  impressed. 

FIFTH  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Produces  Everything  from  a  Root;  Nothing  from  Any 
Other  Source. 

Wherefore — 
1.  Let  all  things  be  deduced  from  the  unchangeable 
elements  of  things. 


THE    THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  195 

2.  Let  nothing  be  learned  by  authority,  but  by 
demonstration,  sensible  or  rational. 

3.  Let  nothing  be  taught  by  the  analytic  method 
only,  but  rather  by  the  synethic. 

SIXTH  PRINCIPLE. 

The  More  the  Uses  for  Which  Nature  Prepares  Anything,  the  More 
Articulately  Does  it  Differentiate  it  into  Parts. 

Wherefore — 

Let  there  be  no  confusion  in  instruction. 

SEVENTH  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature,  in  Each  of  its  Works,  is  in  Perpetual  Progress,  Never  Halts, 
and  Never  Attempts  New  Things,  the  Former  Things  being 
Cast  Aside,  but  Only  Continues  What  Has  Been  Pre- 
viously Begun,  Increases  it,  and  Perfects  it. 

Wherefore — 

1.  Let  all  studies  be  so  arranged  that  the  subse- 
quent things  shall  be  founded  in  what  has  preceded, 
and  be  strengthened  by  them. 

2.  Let  everything  which  is  presented  to  the  pupil, 
and  rightly  understood,  be  fixed  in  the  memory.    ' 

EIGHTH  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Binds  Together  Everything  by  Continuous  Bonds. 

Wherefore — 

1.  Let  the  studies  of  the  whole  life  be  so  arranged 
that  they  shall  be  one  encyclopaedia,  in  which  there 
shall  be  nothing  which  does  not  arise  out  of  a  common 
root,  nothing  not  in  its  proper  place. 

2.  Let  everything  that  is  taught  be  so  strengthened 
l»y  reasons  that  no  room  shall  be  left  for  doubt  or  for- 
getfulness.  And  further,  let  all  things  be  taught  through 
their  causes. 


196  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

NINTH  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Preserves,  Between  Root  and  Branches,  a  True  Proportion 
in  Respect  of  Quantity  and  Quality. 

Wherefore — 

1.  Let  everything  taught  be  at  once  a  subject  of 
reflection  as  to  its  use,  lest  anything  should  be  learned 
to  no  purpose  (i.  e.  the  root  of  knowledge  must  spread 
out  into  the  branches  of  its  various  applications.) 

2.  Let  everything  that  is  learned  be  communicated 
to  others,  that  nothing  may  be  known  to  no  purpose. 

TENTH  PRINCIPLE. 

Nature  Develops  and  Strengthens  Itself  by  Frequent  Movement. 

There  must  therefore  in  everything  be  very  frequent 
repetitions  and  exercises. "  * 

METHOD  IN  READING. 

THE   PREPARATORY    STAGE. 
(Several  Months.) 

THE  KNOWN. 

On  entering  school  at  the  beginning  of  his  sixth  year, 
the  child  is  possessed  of  a  considerable  store  of  ideas, 
in  many  cases  vague  and  partial;  the  oral  terms  for 
most  of  his  ideas ;  a  large  array  of  thoughts ;  the  oral 
sentences  for  these,  often  incorrect ;  power  to  recognize 
and  name,  in  many  cases,  all  or  a  part  of  the  letters,  and 
a  few  words  ;  power  to  produce  all  the  sounds  in  their 
combinations,  and  most  of  them  singly ;  and  the  power 
of  proper  emphasis,  inflection  and  modulation,  as  re- 
quired by  his  own  thought. 
*  John  Amos  Comenius.— By  S.  S.  Laurie. 


THE  THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  197 

The  mind  being  an  organism,  it  is  of  course  true  that 
in  acquiring  the  above  mentioned  ideas,  thoughts,  ex- 
pressions and  powers,  all  the  mental  faculties  were 
called  into  action,  some  prominently,  some  slightly. 
Those  prominently  employed  appear  to  be  observation 
and  association. 

THE  ADVANCE. 

The  work  of  reading  in  this  stage  is  to  preserve  the 
power  of  proper  emphasis,  inflection  and  modulation ; 
to  complete  the  knowledge  of  the  alphabet;  to  make  the 
child  conscious  of  the  separate  elementary  sounds,  and 
to  give  adequate  power  to  produce  them ;  to  associate 
with  the  ideas,  thoughts  and  oral  expressions,  their 
printed  expression  ;  and  to  associate  with  new  ideas  and 
thoughts  their  oral  and  printed  expressions.  The  work 
has  several  starting  points,  each  connecting  with  the 
known,  and  the  proper  point  of  beginning  cannot,  there- 
fore, be  determined  by  that  relation  alone. 

THE  VABI008  (PARTIAL)  METHODS.  (RATHER  SYSTEMS.) 

The  different  points  of  beginning  have  given  rise  to 
different  system'^  which  have  been  termed  methods. 
Thus  :  beginning  with  what  was  known  of  the  alphabet, 
completing  that  knowledge,  passing  by  means  of  this 
into  the  study  of  syllables,  words,  and  then  of  sentences, 
was  known  as  the  alphabetic  method ;  passing  from  the 
oral  word  as  a  whole  to  the  separate  sounds,  to  the  > 
letters,  to  the  printed  word  as  a  whole,  and  then  to  sen- 
tences, was  called  the  phonic,  or  with  certain  modifica- 
tions the  phonetic  method;  associating  the  oral  word  as 
a  whole  with  the  printed  word  as  a  whole,  and  then 


198  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

entering  upon  a  study  of  sounds,  letters  and  sentences, 
took  the  name  of  the  word  method;  making  the  thought 
the  unit,  and  moving  from  thought  to  oral  sentence,  and 
thence  in  order  to  printed  sentence,  words,  sounds,  and 
letters,  assumed  the  name  sentence  method. 

ALPHABETIC   METHOD. 

1.  Its  subject  matter. — The  alphabet  (letters,)  word, 
and  sentence. 

2.  What  it  presents  in  dealing  with  the  alphabet, 
a.  Form  of  letters. 

h.  Name  of  letters. 
c.  Order  of  letters. 

3.  What  it  presents  concerning  the  word. 
a.  Form  as  a  whole. 

h.  Pronunciation. 
c.  Visible  parts. 

4.  Principles. 

a.  Any  whole  may  be  more  clearly  comprehended 
if  its  elements  are  known. 

h.  But  twenty-six  characters  enter  into  the  com- 
position of  the  various  words,  and  these  words  differ 
mainly  in  the  arrangement  of  these  characters,  hence  it 
is  more  logical  to  teach  the  alphabet  first. 

c.  The  alphabet  should  be  taught  by  grouping 
and  juxtaposition,  involving  likeness  and  difference  : 
thus,  placing  and  teaching  together  c,  o,  and  e;  w  and 
v;  m  and  n ;  p  and  q ;  p  and  d,  etc. 

d.  The  word  should  be  taught  by  associating  its 
visible  form  and  its  pronunciation  with  the  letters  and 
the  aggregate  of  the  letter-names. 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  199 

5.  Favorable  points. 

a.  Its  recognition  of  principles  a,  c  and  the  first 
part  of  b.  as  above  stated. 

6.  Objections. 

a.  It  adheres  to  the  last  part  of  principle  b  there- 
by reversing  the  order  of  reading  and  spelling,  spelling 
being  a  habit  of  the  eye;  and  disregarding  the  principle 
that  in  acquisition  the  more  natural  method  of  proce- 
dure is  from  the  whole  to  the  part. 

b.  The  association  which  it  makes  between  the 
pronunciation  and  the  aggregate  of  the  letter-names  is 
arbitrary. 

c.  It  does  not  associate  the  printed  form  with  the 
idea,  though  it  might,  indirectly. 

PHONIC   METHOD. 

1.  Its  subject-matter. — 

The  alphabet^  (sounds,)  word,  and  sentence. 

2.  What  it  presents  concerning  the  alphabet. 

a.  Forms  of  letters. 

b.  Names  of  letters.    . 

c.  Order  of  letters. 

d.  Sounds  of  letters. 

e.  Diacritical  marks. 

3.  What  it  presents  concerning  the  word. 
n.  Form  of  word  as  a  whole. 

6.  Pronunciation. 

c.  Visible  parts. 

d.  Audible  parts. 

e.  Relation  between  c  and  d. 

4.  Principles. 


200  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

a,  b  and  c  same  as  in  alphabetic  method. 

d.  The  word  should  be  taught  by  associating  its 
visible  form  and  pronunciation  with  the  letters  and  the 
aggregate  of  the  letter-sounds. 

5.  Favorable  points. 

a.  Same  as  under  alphabetic  method. 

6.  Objections. 

a  and  b  same  as  under  alphabetic. 

c.  The  aggregate  of  the  letter-sounds  does  not 
naturally  suggest  the  pronunciation,  although  the 
association  is  much  closer  than  that  between  the  aggre- 
gate of  the  letter-names  and  the  pronunciation. 

d.  Its  classification  of  the  elementary  sounds,  in 
connection  with  their  signs,  is  complex  yet  inadequate. 

PHONETIC   METHOD. 

(Leigh's  Pronouncing  Orthography.) 

1.  Its  subject-matter. — 

77i^  alphabet,  (sounds,)  word,  and  sentence. 

2.  What  it  presents  concerning  the  alphabet. 

a.  Forms  of  letters. 

b.  Names  of  letters. 

c.  Order  of  letters. 

d.  Sounds  of  letters. 

e.  New  characters. 

3.  What  it  presents  concerning  the  word, 
a,  6,  c,  d,  e,  same  as  in  phonic  method. 

4.  Principles. 

a,  b,  c  and  d,  same  as  in  phonic  method. 
e.    There  should  be  a  separate  character  for  each 
sound,  and  that  character  should  have  a  uniform  power. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  201 

5.  Favorable  points. 
Same  as  in  phonic. 

6.  Objections. 

In  this  method  the  transition  to  the  common  alpha- 
betic characters  is  made  by  giving  to  the  pupil  the  same 
primers  to  read  in  these  characters  that  he  has  already 
been  reading  in  the  phonetic  characters. 

Such  a  method  is  liable  to  the  same  objections  that 
have  been  urged  against  the  phonic  method  excepting 
d,  while  its  peculiarity  in  using  new  characters  has  two 
difficulties  special  to  itself. 

(1.)  The  irregularities  of  sound  in  the  language 
as  it  is  written  are  not  surmounted  by  such  a  contri- 
vance but  only  delayed. 

(2.)  Such  a  method,  to  be  introduced  at  all, 
would  require  to  be  introduced  universally ;  for  it  is 
incompatible  with  the  ordinary  methods,  and  a  pupil 
changing  from  one  to  another  with  change  of  school, 
would  find  his  previous  acquisition  not  only  useless  to 
liim,  but  an  actual  obstacle  to  further  progress. 

WORD   METHOD. 

1.  Its  subject-matter. — 

The  word,  alphabet,  and  sentence. 

2.  What  it  presents  concerning  the  word. 

a.  Association  of  idea  with  the  oral  word. 
6.  Association  of  the  printed  form  with  the  oral 
word  as  a  whole. 

c.  The  analysis  of  the  word  into  its  sounds. 

d.  Analysis  into  letters. 

e.  Association  of  the  sounds  with  the  letters,  in- 
cluding diacritical  marking. 


202  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

3.  What  it  presents  concerning  the  alphabet. 

a.  Names  of  letters. 

b.  Forms  of  letters. 

c.  Sounds  of  letters. 

d.  Diacritical  marks. 

4.  Principles. 

a.  Same  as  a  in  the  alphabetic. 

b.  It  is  the  more  natural  to  proceed  from  the 
whole  to  the  elements. 

c.  The  printed  word  should  be  taught  by  asso- 
ciating it  directly  with  the  already  familiar  oral  word. 

d.  A  part  is  contemplated  with  more  interest 
after  its  whole  is  known. 

e.  In  teaching  the  forms  of  the  letters,  the  eye 
should  observe  and  the  hand  reproduce. 

5.  Favorable  points. 

The  recognition  of  the  five  principles  above  stated. 

6.  Objections. 

a.  It  does  not  make  a  direct  association  between 
the  idea  and  the  printed  word. 

6.  It  does  not  directly  give  the  pupil  the  power 
to  master  new  words^  in  which  the  power  of  reading  really 
consists. 

c.  It  presents  the  diacritical  marks  before  necessi- 
ty requires,  thereby  complicating  the  work  of  the  pre- 
paratory stage. 

IDEA-WORD    METHOD. 

1.  Subject-matter. — 

The  word  in  direct  association  with  its  idea,  alpha- 
bet, and  sentence. 

2.  What  it  presents  concerning  the  word. 


idea. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  203 

a.  Printed  form  as  a  whole. 

b.  Direct  association  of  the  printed  form  with  the 


c.  Pronunciation. 

d.  Analysis  into  sounds. 

e.  Analysis  into  letters. 

/.    Association  of  the  letters  with  the  sounds. 

3.  What  it  presents  concerning  the  alphabet. 

a.  Names  of  letters. 

b.  Forms  of  letters. 

c.  Sounds  of  letters. 

4.  Principles. 

a.  The  method  of  learning  the  printed  word 
should  be  analogous  to  that  by  which  the  child  learns 
the  oral  word ;  i.  e.,  the  association  between  the  printed 
word  and  the  idea  should  be  direct,  and  the  expression 
should  be  kept  in  the  background.  When  has  a  word 
been  learned  f 

The  true  answer  to  this  question  is  involved  in  the 
answers  to  two  other  questions — What  is  a  word  ?  and, 
What  is  the  use  of  a  word  ?  A  word  is  an  arbitrary  sign 
of  an  idea ;  that  is,  it  is  only  by  arbitrary  agreement 
that  a  certain  familiar  object  is  called  table;  it  might 
with  as  good  reason  have  been  called  door.  The  only 
valuable  use  of  a  word  is  to  suggest  to  the  mind  an  idea. 
If  a  word  is  an  arbitrary  sign  of  an  idea,  it  can  be 
made  to  suggest  its  idea  only  by  acts  of  association.  If 
the  actfl  of  association  are  weak,  the  word  will  suggest 
its  idea  vaguely;'  if  they  are  strong,  the  idea  will  be  re- 
called vividly. 


204  THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

The  root  idea  in  primary  reading^  then,  is  strong  associa- 
tion of  idea  and  word.  It  is  held  by  some  that  the  main 
thought  of  primary  reading  is  the  mastery  of  the  written 
or  printed  word.  It  is  said,  the  child  is  familiar  with 
the  idea,  and  with  the  oral  word,  and  the  thing  remain- 
ing to  be  done  is  to  teach  him  the  printed  word.  This 
thought  is  at  the  basis  of  the  formal  and  mechanical 
reading  work  of  the  schools.  It  inevitably  tends  to 
concentrate  the  attention  of  both  teacher  and  child  upon 
words  to  the  comparative  exclusion  of  ideas.  If  those 
holding  to  the  thought  that  the  mastery  of  the  printed 
word  is  the  design,  employ  ideas  or  objects,  it  is  simply 
to  make  vivid  the  picture  of  the  word.  It  is  true  that 
the  printed  word  must  be  taught,  but  as  a  means  not  as 
an  end.  It  is  to  be  taught  only  that  it  may  be  associa- 
ted with  its  idea,  and  not  for  itself. 

The  child  in  the  beginning  does,  as  is  said,  know  two 
things — the  idea  and  the  oral  word;  but  it  is  hardly  cor- 
rect that  there  remains  but  one  thing  to  do — the  mas- 
tery of  the  printed  word.  There  are  two  things  to  be 
done : 

1.  The  mastery  of  the  printed  word. 

2.  The  strong  association  of  the  idea  with  the  printed 
word. 

The  last  is  the  central  idea  of  primary  reading — the 
one  that  determines  method,  means,  etc.  If  it  is  said 
that  those  who  say  that  the  mastery  of  the  printed  word 
is  the  work  of  a  primary  school  mean  to  include  the 
second  point,  the  answer  is  that  the  results  show  a 
very  weak  association,  but  considerable  power  to  call  words 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  205 

at  sight — thus  indicating  that  the  stress  of  the  work  has 
been  upon  expression  and  not  upon  the  association  of 
thought  with  expression. 

There  are,  however,  as  has  been  shown,  two  ways  of 
associating  the  printed  word  with  the  idea — one  indi- 
rect, the  other  direct.  In  the  first,  the  thought  is — the 
child  already  knows  the  idea  and  the  oral  word  and  has 
associated  them  ;  he  is  now  to  be  led  to  associate  the 
printed  word  with  the  idea  through  the  oral  word.  This 
assumes  that  the  thing  that  above  all  others  the  child 
needs  is  the  oral  word;  that  he  is  already  able  by  means 
of  association  with  the  idea  to  call  it  up,  and  that  his 
power  to  call  it  up  must  be  increased  by  associating  it 
with  the  printed  word.  It  is  thus  seen  that  the  ter- 
mination is  again,  power  to  call  words  at  sight,  instead 
of  power  to  instantly  drink  in  the  meaning  of  words  at 
sight  of  them. 

In  *'The  True  Order  of  Studies,"  by  Thomas  Hill,  the 
statement  is  made  that  "  the  children  must  early  be 
taught  that  the  printed  word  is  the  sign  or  picture  of 
the  oral  word."  This  idea  has  been  the  blight  to  thought 
work  in  primary  reading. 

In  the  second  way  of  associating  the  printed  word 
with  the  idea,  the  thought  is  that  nature  has  already 
provided  the  child  with  one  means  of  suggesting  the 
idea,  viz.,  the  oral  word,  by  associating  the  two  directly 
and  frequently,  and  that  the  aim  of  primary  reading 
work  is  to  furnish  another  means,  by  the  same  method 
—  the  printed  word.  This  consideration  makes  the  direct 
association  of  printed  word  and  idea  the  ruling  thought 


206  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

It  furnishes  the  true  ground  for  .deciding  as  to  the 
means  and  devices  that  are  to  be  employed — if  they 
strengthen  the  direct  acts  of  association  they  are  legiti- 
mate; if  not,  they  hinder  in  the  process  of  reading, 
which  consists  essentially  in  bringing  about  acts  of  asso- 
ciation between  printed  words  and  ideas. 

A  printed  word  has  been  learned,  when  the  associ- 
ation between  it  and  its  idea  is  so  strong  that  the  idea 
(not  the  sound — the  oral  word)  is  instantly  suggested  at 
sight  of  it. 

h.  The  power  to  master  new  words  as  to  printed 
form  and  pronunciation  should  be  given  through  the 
law  of  analogy. 

For  example,  at  some  stage  in  the  work  the  pupil  has 
encountered  the  word  hem,  and  in  connection  with  it 
studied  gem,  stem,  them,  etc.  At  another  time  he  may 
have  been  required  to  deal  with  the  word  ark,  and 
along  with  it  to  consider  dark,  hark,  mark,  park,  stark, 
etc.  At  still  another  time  he  has  had  presented  some  word 
involving  b — e.g.,  ball,  or  web ;  or  some  word  involving 
is,  as  this.  In  the  study  of  these  the  work  involved  not 
the  use  of  diacritical  marks,  but  a  dependence — 

(1.)  Upon  phonic  and  visible  resemblance. 
(2.)  Upon   the  spontaneous  induction  which 
the  mind  of  the  pupil  tends  to  make. 

(3.)  Upon  direct  and  systematic  guidance  to 
the  proper  induction  by  the  teacher. 

In  this  way  the  pupil  gradually  comes  into  a  com- 
prehension of  the  genius  of  the  English  language  as  to 
its  letter-combinations  and  the  associated  sounds.     By 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  207 

natural  mental  growth  he  begins  to  understand  that  as 
a  rule  there  is,  according  to  the  inherent  nature  of  the 
English  language  for  the  analogous  combinations  ark, 
dark,  hark,  park,  etc.,  an  analogous  sound  regardless  of 
any  markings;  and  likewise,  in  regard  to  such  words 
as  gem,  stem,  them,  hem,  etc. 

Therefore,  it  is  held  that  work  based  upon  this 
thought,  taken  day  by  day,  establishing  the  general 
laws  as  to  the  relation  of  combinations  of  letters  and 
sounds  first,  and  dealing  with  the  exceptions  afterwards, 
confers  a  natural  power  for  the  mastery  of  the  printed 
form  and  the  pronunciation  of  new  words,  and  one  that 
is  as  applicable  to  the  newspaper  and  general  literature 
as  to  the  prepared  text  book  in  which  markings  are  to  be 
found.  It  thus  occurs  that  if  the  pupil  meets  for  the 
first  time,  upon  the  page  of  a  newspaper  or  elsewhere, 
the  word  disembark^  he  is  already  substantially  master  of 
it,  because  in  the  combinations  already  referred  to  he 
has  studied  the  forms  em,  ark,  b,  d,  and  is,  and  compre- 
hends their  power ;  and  the  idea  that  he  has  gained  of 
phonic  and  visible  resemblance  enables  him  to  see  with 
but  little  difficulty  the  relation  between  form  and  sound 
of  this  new  word. 

c.  The  sense  or  meaning  of  a  word  is  its  strongest 
bond  of  association,  and  also  the  one  of  greatest  worth. 

d.  Other  things  being  equal,  those  things  that  are 
brought  most  often  before  the  mind  are  best  retained. 

e.  Other  things  being  equal,  those  things  which 
are  most  free  from  entangling  relations  are  best  retained. 

/.   The  word  as  a  whole,  and  the  letters  are  visi- 


208  '  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

ble  forms,  and  therefore  in  learning  them  the  eye  should 
observe  and  the  hand  reproduce. 

SUaOESTIONS. 

1.  For  perhaps  two  months  present  isolated  words  as 
wholes,  making  the  association  between  the  printed  word  and 
the  idea  direct,  using  the  oral  word  only  incidentally. 

a.  Nature  of  the  work  under  "  1 "  explained. 

2.  At  about  the  beginning  of  the  third  month  com- 
mence to  teach  words  in  sentences. 

a.  Nature  of  the  work  under  "  2  "  explained. 

3.  At  the  beginning  of  the  third  month  begin  to 
analyze  words  into  their  sounds. 

a.  Manner  of  beginning  the  analysis  explained. 

4.  Sometime  during  the  third  month  commence  to 
analyze  the  words  into  their  letters,  and  to  associate  the 
letters  with  their  sounds. 

a.  Nature  of  the  work  under  "  4  "  explained. 
The  time  as  given  under  1,  2,  3  and  4,  as  well  as  that 
given  elsewhere,  is  only  approximate.     It  may  be  varied 
according  to  the  condition  of  the  school  community,  or 
the  mental  development  of  the  pupils. 

5.  Diacritical  marks. 
a.  Purpose. 

To  aid  the  child  in  the  intelligent  use  of  the  dic- 
tionary. 

h.  Time  of  teaching  these  marks : — 
Beginning  of  the  third  year. 

(1).  Reason : — 
Principle  e  of  this  method. 

6.  Print  and  script. 


THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  209 

a.  Reasons  for  presenting  words  in  script  from  the 
beginning. 

(1).  Printed  letters  have  a  vertical  position. 
Pupils  who  practice  printing  for  any  considerable  length 
of  time  acquire  a  stiff,  awkward  manner  of  forming  the 
letters. 

(2).  Script  preserves  closely  the  unity  of  the 
word. 

(3).  The  script  form  is  more  easily  made. 

(4).  It  gives  the  child  at  the  very  beginning  of 
his  school-life  the  second  important  medium  of  commu- 
nication. 

b.  Reason  for  presenting  words  in  print  form 
from  the  beginning. 

The  purpose  of  the  preparatory  stage  is  the  associ- 
ation of  ideas  with  words  as  printed  forms.  A  care- 
ful consideration  of  the  reasons  for  presenting  script 
and  for  presenting  print  from  the  beginning  will  show  a 
preponderance  in  favor  of  presenting  print. 

7.  Manner  of  teaching  the  words  "a'*  and  "the." 

There  are  three  methods  of  presenting  these  words, 
which  will  be  stated  in  the  order  of  their  value,  begin- 
ning with  the  one  of  least  worth. 

a.  To  teach  the  sounds  of  these  words  as  given  by 
the  dictionary,  and  to  hold  the  pupils  rigidly  to  this 
pronunciation. 

6.  To  teach  the  words,  giving  "  a  "  and  "  e"  their 
name  sounds,  on  the  assumption  that  the  pupils  will 
naturally  acquire  the  proper  pronunciation. 

15 


210  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

c.  To  omit  all  direct  teaching  in  regard  to  the 
pronunciation  of  these  words.  First,  on  the  ground 
that  the  directions  given  for  their  pronunciation  by  the 
dictionary  are  based  upon  the  observed  habit  of  both 
children  and  adults ;  and,  second,  on  the  assumption 
that  the  pupils  will  naturally  and  readily  continue  their 
already  acquired  habit  of  pronouncing  these  words 
when  they  are  presented  as  printed  forms  without  any 
direct  instruction. 

8.  The  words  to  be  taught  in  the  preparatory  stage : 
a.  The  number: — 
About  one  hundred.  The  number  may  vary.  By 
some  teachers  it  is  deemed  best  to  begin  almost  at  once 
with  the  words  in  the  book ;  by  others,  after  presenting 
orally  from  ten  to  twenty  words ;  while  still  others 
advocate  the  teaching  of  from  fifty  to  one  hundred 
words  in  the  preparatory  stage.  Each  teacher  should 
decide  this  for  herself  in  view  of  her  surroundings,  and 
the  condition  of  the  school  and  class,  but  enough  should 
be  taught  to  fix  clearly  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil  the 
thought  that  the  use  of  a  word  is  to  suggest  an  idea, 
before  letters  and  sounds  are  dealt  with. 

h.  Ideas  to  be  considered  in  selecting  them  : 

(1).  They  must  be  familiar  orally  and  as  to 
their  meaning. 

(2).  They  must  be  interesting. 

(3.)  They  must  be  in  a  large  measure  those 
contained  in  the  first  reading  book. 

(4).  They  should  be  composed  of  groups  that 
contain  words  analogous  in  form  and  sound. 
c.  How  they  are  to  be  selected : 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  211 

(1).  The  words  that  occur  in  the  first  reading 
lesson  should  be  taken. 

(2).  To  these  should  be  added  all  familiar  words 
that  are  analogous  in  form  and  sound. 

(3).  The  words  of  the  succeeding  lesson  should 
be  selected  in  the  same  way  until  the  number  of  words 
required  for  the  preparatory  stage  is  secured. 

(a).  The  preparation  of  a  list  of  words  suita- 
ble for  presentation  in  the  preparatory  stage,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  thought  expressed  under  "c." 

SENTENCE    METHOD. 
GENERAL    NATURE. 

Observations  as  to  the  reading  of  those  who  learned 
to  read  before  they  entered  school,  show  that  most  of 
them  are  rapid  readers  of  the  thought.  In  a  glance 
their  eye  would  pass  over  the  sentence  or  sen- 
tences with  but  little  consciousness  of  the  words  and 
they  would  grasp  the  thought  of  the  selection  much  more 
rapidly  than  if  the  words  were  pronounced.  The  discov- 
ery is,  on  the  other  hand,  that  those  who  have  been  taught 
to  read  in  school  are  slow  readers,  i.  e.  of  the  thought, 
their  habit  being  to  pronounce  the  words  mentally,  if 
not  aloud.  They  are  almost  invariably  rapid  readers  of 
words,  i.  e.  they  call  words  at  sight  rapidly,  but  are  slow 
to  drink  in  the  meaning.  The  inferences  are  that  in  the 
public  school  too  much  attention  is  given  to  word  call- 
ing, to  pronunciation,  to  sounds  and  diacritical  marks 
in  the  early  work,  thereby  establishing  a  bent  in  the 
direction  of  mere  form ;  that  not  enough  stress  is  laid 
upon  the  direct  association  of  thought  and  expression; 


212  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

and  that  there  is  not  enough  training  in  drinking  in 
the  thoughts  of  whole  sentences  at  a  glance. 

Reading  consists  of  silent  reading  and  oral  reading. 
The  first  is  the  comprehending  of  the  thought  expressed 
and  suggested  by  printed  or  written  language  and  the 
second  is  the  adequate  oral  expression  of  that  thought 
in  the  same  language.  The  first  is  the  fundamental 
process.  In  fact  the  oral  reading  is  to  be  considered 
largely  as  a  means  by  which  the  teacher  determines 
whether  the  pupil  has  "read"  in  the  first  sense.  The 
correctness  of  the  oral  reading  depends  largely  upon 
the  silent  reading.  The  object  in  teaching  reading  is  to 
give  the  pupil  the  power  to  look  upon  the  printed  or 
written  page  and  to  grasp  the  thought  with  the  least 
possible  consciousness  of  the  words.  If  the  pupil  is  so 
taught  that  he  either  thinks  the  pronunciation  of  eacfh 
word,  or  actually  pronounces  it,  the  thought  is  not 
obtained  directly  through  the  printed  or  written  lan- 
guage, but  indirectly,  in  that  the  printed  or  written 
words  have  first  to  be  translated  into  oral  words. 

The  pupil  should  be  able  to  look  directly  through  the 
printed  or  written  words  to  the  meaning,  or  to  at  once 
determine  the  unknown  elements. 

The  ordinary  use  of  the  eye  is  to  convey  to  the  mind 
the  visible  attributes  of  objects.  But  the  ear  while 
recognizing  sound  as  sound,  has  from  the  beginning 
learned  to  recognize  thought  through  oral  words  in  such 
a  way  that  the  thought  becomes  primary  in  conscious- 
ness, and  the  sound  of  the  words  secondary.  So  purely 
does  language  become  the  representative  of  thought, 
that,  as  sound,  it  is  almost  entirely  in  the  back-ground. 


THE  THEORY  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  213 

To  cause  the  eye  to  obtain  thought  from  language 
with  as  little  consciousness  of  the  expression  as  does 
the  ear  in  comprehending  the  thought  from  spoken  lan- 
guage is  the  problem.  And  this  problem  is  settled, 
largely,  one  way,  or  the  other,  by  the  end  of  the  third 
year  of  school.  The  prime  aim  is  to  so  change  the 
function  of  the  eye  that,  in  reading,  words  will  suggest 
directly  to  the  consciousness  their  contained  thought. 


PRINCIPLES. 


The  principles  of  the  sentence  method  are  : 

1.  The  mind  naturally  begins  with  wholes  in  its 
investigations. 

2.  As  the  unit  of  thinking  is  the  thought,  so  the 
unit  of  expression  is  the  sentence. 

3.  As  parts  are  naturally  learned  while  considering 
their  wholes,  words,  as  parts  of  a  sentence  are  learned 
while  studying  the  sentence,  and  letters  while  studying 
their  whole — the  word. 

4.  Language  should  be  learned  indirectly,  the  stress 
of  the  attention  being  upon  the  thought. 

STEPS. 

The  first  step  in  the  sentence  method  is  to  awaken 
thought  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil  by  means  of  objects 
present  to  the  senses  and  to  the  imagination,  and  to  lead 
him  to  give  the  thought  proper  oral  expression. 

The  second  step  is  to  lead  the  child  to  grasp  the  exact 
thought  of  any  given  oral  expression,  and  to  make  the 
appropriate  concrete  representation. 

The  third  step  is  to  lead  the  child  to  grasp  the  exact 
thought  contained  in  a  printed  or  written  sentence,  and   , 


214  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

to  enable   him  to  express  the  thought  in  the  language 
used. 

For  example,  the  teacher  prints  or  writes  upon  the 
board,  "  I  have  a  ball."  The  pupils  never  having  studied 
printed  or  written  words,  do  not  know  the  meaning; 
but  from  the  habits  and  tendencies  gained  from  the  pre- 
vious steps,  when  the  teacher  places  the  ball  in  the 
hands  of  the  pupil  he  says  ''I  have  a  ball." 

The  teacher  continues  the  work  in  the  same  way 
until  several  children  are  supplied  with  objects,  and  cor- 
responding number  of  sentences  being  upon  the  board. 

The  pupils  will  then  be  called  upon  one  by  one  to 
point  out  their  sentences  upon  the  board,  and  to  read 
them  orally.  Since  each  retains  his  object,  this  will  be 
readily  done.  If  the  child  forgets  the  sentence  the 
teacher  is  to  point  it  out  for  him.  The  pupils  are  then 
led  to  exchange  objects  and  continue  the  same  kind 
of  work.  In  the  lessons  from  day  to  day  the  position 
of  the  sentences  is  to  be  changed,  in  order  that  the  pupils 
may  not  recall  them  from  their  position.  The  objects  to 
be  used  should  be  kept  upon  a  table  or  desk  within 
reach  of  the  pupils.  When  the  teacher  prints  or  Writes 
a  new  sentence  she  may  hand  the  object  to  the  pupil  or 
point  it  out  for  him  to  take. 

At  a  later  stage  the  teacher  may,  after  printing  or 
writing  a  sentence,  wait,  and  thus  give  the  pupils  an 
opportunity  to  select  the  object  without  its  being  shown. 
Whenever  a  pupil  expresses  a  desire  to  do  this  it  indi- 
cates that  he  has  read  the  thought,  and  is  acting  in 
obedience  to  the  impulse  occasioned  by  the  thought. 
The  pupils  are,   from   this  point  on,  able  to  read  the 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  215 

sentences,  silently,  orally,  and  to  represent  the  thought 
objectively  with  but  little  aid  from  the  teacher.  In  due 
season  they  pass  to  the  consideration  of  single  words, 
letters,  sounds,  etc. 

Indicate,  in  detail,  the  exercises  under  each  step.    What  are  the  favorable 
points  of  the  method?    The  objections  to  it?    How  lest  it? 

No  one  of  these,  however,  constitutes  a  method  of 
teaching  reading.  Each  is  a  system^  one  condition  of 
the  method. 

The  central  thought  in  each  is  association;  each  in  its 
place  is  best.  The  things  to  be  associated  in  reading 
are  ideas  and  thoughts  on  the  one  hand  with  their 
printed  symbols  on  the  other.  It  is  not  the  aim  of  readr 
iiig  to  teach  the  printed  word  or  the  printed  sentence,  but  to  so 
associate  them  with  the  idea  and  the  thought  that  they  express, 
that  the  one  shall  instantly  suggest  the  other.  Each  of  these 
systems,  in  its  proper  relation,  is  an  aid  to  the  asso- 
ciation of  thought  and  expression  ;  but  each  may  be  era- 
ployed  at  such  a  time,  and  make  such  association  as  to 
be  a  hindrance  to  thought,  the  great  point  im  read- 
ing WORK  IS  TO  ASSOCIATE  IDEAS  AND  PRINTED  WORDS, 
AND  THOUGHTS  AND  PRINTED  SENTENCES,  80  AS  TO  MAKE 
THE  PUPIL  AS  LITTLE  CONSCIOUS  OF  THE  PRINTED  WORD 
AS  HE  IS  OF  ORAL  WORDS  WHEN  HE  IS  GIVING  OR  RECEIV- 
ING  THOUGHT   BY   MEANS  OF   THEM.       The   SOle   USC   of  a 

word  or  sentence  is  to' suggest  an  idea  or  thought.  Un- 
less they  do  this  they  are  worse  than  useless.  But 
words  and  sentences  have  in  themselves  as  forms  no 
inherent  power  of  suggesting  ideas  and  thoughts,  since 
they  are  arbitrary  expressions.     In  order  that  they  may 


^1^  lUK  X«iiX>KY   a*'  THK  SOHOOL. 


At  vvi>o0  8Ug|t«^t  thdr  ideas  imd  thoughts,  the  assoeiAtion 
mu$t  fh«ii  the  am  be  diwct,  the  weight  of  attevit 
mtiii^tt  upon  the  thou«fht  side.    ''An  irr^hignb 

iUaHctice,**  eay^  Cwuw^ius,  "is  that  tht>  uiuio 
tuui  th^tong\u^?^uHild  Hd\WHH>  in  jvanUlol  I- 
Th^  oi«;>A\n\^v  ia<\H  in  r^ditt^it  i§  that  tl\o  pr 
5^\ous  ari*  to  be  Aseuttated  with  their  iil 
iij'^iMustantly  sufpstthwd.  md  y 


Aj^viatiou  Wi^x^sj  th«^  e^^si^ntial  aet  in  U>arningto  mul, 
a  vHH^dd^ration  v\f  the  Lhw$  of  asstooiatioi\  is  r^uisLit^, 
Th«?  t\uHiam^nt«l  prinoiple  of  nwodation  is  ti^at  tA^ 
mmd  ttHih  H^  oH  oyci^  •$  «l  iW»  «c«mI.  Subordinate  to 
thi$i$<~^hf(MArH$f$<l]^lMr«MiM  IIUiiiMM)oirA<rv^aiii^ 
^tm<^«r  «i  tMiiM(i^»filt  «iimiim»m>  <iihI  one  ^  Hum  ^  f^^ 
•wirrf  lMt9iii«f^.  th$  tniilm^  f»>^  <At  M$r  to  ^pmr  m 
i^H.^'itmrnm.  But  this  is  oi>ly  «  tendency ;  there  is  no 
aWt\lut<*  tvrt^uty  that  the  one  wiU  pieeent  itself  to  the 
nund  when  the  othwdoes.  This  owimnty  is  to  be  secur- 
eii  bv  the  application  of  another  law  of  assocbtion— 
a«*<rr  «A#i^  Mat  <t^  <*«^  <*«59»  l*crf  wt  ia«<  q^ 
^H^ki  <^yK»€r  wi  <e<»{jcj»ii3inn»  mt  meat  a<roiijf<y  qwofwl^ 

Ecoiuvmy  requires  that  this  law  should  be  supj^e- 
mented  by  two  othm:    (kktr  Mii$9  htm$  «9iki/>  tkom 

r^iili^  ^i^^  ^  «aia(«Mi  m^  taest  4lvei^  ^^  (If 

the  emotion  become©  absorUng^  howeyt^,  the  tend«ioy 
tv>  str\n\)jt  asj^viation  is  weakened.)  OtiWr  tiUi^  h$m9 
^f^mf.  ^m$  ^m^  ^^  mw  IM  ««9«a«r  w  €aiiwtMi^M«8»» 


TllJC  TliKOHY   OF  THE  aCilOOL.  217 

most  free  from  entangling  relationSj  are  W/ost  utrongly  asso* 
dated. 

The  ideaa  tu  be  mtuitered  in  reading,  or  the  exercise- 
ground,  Hhould  Ix;,  and  nhould  appeiir  to  the  child  to  be 
a  development  from  the  baHJH,  i.e.,  that  wliich  he  already 

IIOW8  upon  the  Bubject. 

The  thought  that  iH  to  determine  what  meann  or  d«;- 
viceH  are  to  be  employed  in  teaching  the  child  to  n;;i(l 

-whether  the  given  device  or  means  will  aid  the  aHHo- 
'  i.ition  of  the  thought  and  expresBion. 

The  development  of  the  mind  \h  thus  presented  by 

I'OKTKR  : 

"TlKf  (ievelopment  of  the  mind  begiiiH  with  the  beginnings  of 
■"rniwn.     Before  thiM,  itH  octivitieH  are,  oh  it  were,  rudimental 

ly.  From  tliJH  condition  th«  mind  awakeH  when  wmia  object 
attra<!t»  and  holds  itH  attention.  Tiie  infant'H  power  to  know 
bcKinM  to  be  <leveloped  when  it  beginn  to  attend.  Ah  »oon  an 
the  infant  be^inn  U)  notice,  itH  vacant  countenance  aasumes  the 
expreHHion  of  intelligence,  and  Ih  lighted  with  the  dawn  of 
intellectual  activity.  Attention  given  diwTiminatu/n,  and  din- 
crimination  implicH  objectn  diHcriuiinated.  The  Ant  object« 
dittinguinhed  are  object  of  senite.  The  teniible  objecta  that  are 
f^rHt  niaHtered  are  th^me  which  relate  to  its  wanit,  and  generally 

far  only  vm  they  are  related  to  these  want«;  firHt  to  it«  apj)e- 
litei,  then  U)  itM  nffertiorut  and  detiren.  With  the  dincernntent  of 
thene  object*,  in  their  relations  to  these HenHibilitien  and  desires, 
('••j^iiiH  hIho  the  direction  of  the  active  powern  by  intelligence. 

liut  though  the  attention  is  at  firHt  chiefly  occupied  with 
sennible  objects,  and  thew  prominently  in  their  relations  to  the 
w<*nsibilitieH  and  the  practical  wants,  it  Im  not  wholly  neglectful 

the  psychical  oi>erations  and  the  pHycfiical  self.     At  a  very 

riy  period  the  lH>dy  is  dlHtinj^uished  from  the  material  world 

which  it  forniH  a  [)art.     The  soul  alwj  begins  to  be  appre- 


218  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

hended  as  diverse  from  the  body,  as  soon  as  the  purely  psychi- 
cal emotions,  as  the  love  of  power  and  sympathy,  or  the  irasci- 
ble passions,  are  vividly  experienced. 

As  fast  as  the  attention  masters  distinct  objects,  it  must  separ- 
ate them  into  separable  ideas  or  images,  which  are  henceforth 
at  the  service  of  the  imagination  and  the  memory.  These  reap- 
pear in  the  occasional  dream-life  that  begins  to  disturb  what 
was  hitherto  the  animal  sleep  of  the  infant.  Memory  begins  to 
recall  past  experiences  of  knowledge  and  feeling.  Recognition 
finds  old  and  familiar  acquaintances  in  the  objects  seen  a  sec- 
ond time.  At  a  later  period,  imagination  begins  to  imitate  the 
actions  and  occupations  of  older  persons,  and  furnishes  endless 
and  varied  play  work  for  childhood  in  the  busy  constructions  of 
the  never-wearied  fancy  ;  while  it  irradiates  the  emotional  life 
with  perpetual  and  inextinguishable  sunshine. 

Slowly  the  rudiments  of  thinking,  or  the  rational  processes,  begin 
to  be  learned  and  practiced.  The  attention  not  only  discrimi- 
nates, but  compares.  As  it  compares,  it  discerns  likenesses  and 
differences  in  qualities  and  relations.  These,  it  thinks  apart 
from  the  individual  objects  to  which  they  pertain.  It  groups 
and  arranges,  under  the  general  conceptions  thus  formed,  the 
individuals  and  species  to  which  ihey  belong.  To  these  activi- 
ties language  furnishes  its  stimulus  and  lends  its  aid.  Inasmuch 
as  there  can  be  but  a  limited  language  without  generalization, 
the  infant  or  child  is  forced  to  think,  by  the  multitude  of  words 
which  catch  its  ear  and  force  themselves  upon  its  attention ; 
each  representing  the  previous  thinking  of  other  men,  and 
even  of  other  generations. 

With  classifying,  are  intimately  allied  the  higher  acts  of 
tracing  effects  to  causes  and  illustrating  causes  by  effects.  Then, 
inductions  are  made  by  interpreting  similar  qualities  and  causes, 
as  exhibited  in  experience  and  elicited  by  experiments.  The 
mind  becomes  possessed  of  principles  and  rules,  which  it  ap- 
plies in  deductions  both  to  prove  and  explain. 

From  the  development  of  the  child's  mind  it  is  evi- 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  219 

dent  that  devices  or  means  that  will  not  be  appropriate, 
and  will  not  aid  the  association  at  one  time,  will  at  an- 
other, and  vice  versa. 

What  are  the  principal  means  or  devices  that  may  be 
employed  in  reading?  (a).  To  call  the  idea  into  con- 
sciousness,    (b).  To  call  the  word  into  consciousness. 

Among  the  principal  means  of  suggesting  the  idea  to 
the  mind  may  be  mentioned : 

1.  Illustration. 

a.  Objective. 

b.  Graphic,  {^-j^f 

2.  Language. 

a.  Oral  word,  j  ^^^"^-    , 

( In  a  sentence. 

b.  Conversation. 

c.  Stories. 

The  printed  word  is  brought  into  consciousness,  in 
the  first  place  mainly  by  observation  and  copy.  It  is 
afterwards  suggested  by  any  one  of  the  means  given 
above  as  suggesting  the  idea. 

The  great  and  most  prevalent  defect  in  teaching 
children  to  read  is  in  having  them  try  to  learn  one  thing 
by  doing  another,  i.  e.,  in  having  them  associate  expression 
mth  expression,  when  the  aim  is  to  associate  expression 
with  thought.  Dealing  too  much  with  form  or  expres- 
sion, has  been,  and  is,  the  source  of  all  the  mechanical 
reading  that  so  abounds.  In  reading,  the  form  or  ex- 
pression is  the  incident,  and  is  to  be  kept  in  the  back- 
ground. 


220  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

The  tendency  to  make  the  expression  prominent  is 
seen  in  the  association  of  the  printed  word  with  the  oral 
word  in  unnecessary  cases ;  the  association  of  the  printed 
word  with  the  same  word  in  other  places  on  the  board 
or  in  the  book;  in  the  practice  of  calling  the  pupil's 
attention  to  his  mistakes  in  emphasis,  inflection,  modu- 
lation, etc. ;  in  the  practice  of  asking  one  pupil  to  try  to 
give  a  better  oral  reading  than  the  one  given.  All  these 
tend  to  make  the  pupil  self-conscious,  and  hence  divide 
his  mental  energy,  which  should  be  concentrated  upon 
the  thought. 

THE   PRIMARY   STAGE. 
(To  about  the  close  of  the  Third  Year). 

GENERAL  NATUBE. 

In  the  first  part  of  this  stage  the  subject  matter  and 
the  methods  partake  of  the  nature  of  those  in  the  ad- 
vanced stage  but  more  largely  of  those  in  the  preparatory 
stage;  while  in  the  latter  part  of  the  work  the  reverse 
is  the  case. 

Since  all  literature  is  the  embodiment  of  thought,  and 
all  thought  involves  the  relations  indicated  under  the 
head  of  the  categories — (considered  at  another  place) — 
it  follows  that  the  teacher  of  silent  reading  will  find  that 
all  the  questions  employed  by  her  in  leading  the  child- 
ren to  obtain  the  thought  will  find  their  classification 
under  these  categories  referred  to,  so  that  the  question 
can  not  be — Shall  the  categories  be  employed  in  obtain- 
ing the  thought  of  the  reading  lessons  in  the  primary 
stage?  but — Shall  they  be  applied  informally,  (to  the 
children)  or  formally  and  in  such  a  way  that  the  child- 
ren are  conscious  participants  in  their  application  ? 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  221 

The  true  answer,  probably,  is  that  in  the  beginning 
of  the  primary  stage  their  application  should  be  in- 
formal, (the  teacher,  however,  having  in  mind  their  sys- 
tematic use)  gradually  passing  into  a  conscious  and  sys- 
tematic use  of  them,  so  as  to,  by  this  means,  early  im- 
plant among  other  habits  a  habit  of  studying  the  read- 
ing lessons  in  the  light  of  them.  This  alone  would  be 
a  gain  of  great  value,  as  it  would  go  far  toward  solving 
that  problem  so  often  met  by  the  primary  teacher — How 
can  the  primary  pupil  be  led  to  study  the  reading  les- 
son ?  Many  difficulties  in  discipline  would  thus  be  re- 
moved. 

USUAL  MODE  OF  PROCEDURE. 

The  most  prevalent  method  of  dealing  with  a  reading 
lesson  is  based  on  two  principles  : 

1.  The  chief  aim  in  a  reading  lesson  has  to  do  with  the 
thought. 

2.  The  mind  can  best  master  a  thing,  when  the  thing 
to  be  mastered  is  most  free  from  entangling  relations. 

It  is  therefore  said  by  many, '  unless  the  mind  is  freed 
from  the  consideration  of  such  things  as  the  spelling,  pro- 
nunciation, and  meaning  of  ne^  or  vaguely  understood 
words  when  it  enters  upon  the  attempt  to  obtain  the 
thought  of  a  paragraph  or  of  a  whole  selection,  it  will 
be  hampered  and  engrossed  by  these  elements  of  form 
so  as  to  seriously  interfere  with  the  mastery  of  the 
thought ' 

The  inference  of  those  who  reason  thus  is  that  the 
treatment  of  a  given  selection  as  a  reading  lesson  would 
involve  three  general  kinds  of  work : 


222  THE   THEORY   OP   THE   SCHOOL. 

1.  The  mastery  of  new  words. 

2.  The  consideration  of  the  general  thought. 

3.  The  oral  reading. 

The  mode  of  procedure  would  therefore  be  (a  selection 
having  been  decided  upon): 

a.  The  selection  of  the  most  difficult  words  (diffi- 
cult as  to  pronunciation,  spelling,  meaning,  or  in  any 
respect)  and  the  placing  of  them  upon  the  board.  . 

b.  The  study  of  these  words  by  the  pupils,  as  to 
their  spelling,  sounds,  diacritical  marking,  pronunciation 
and  general  meaning. 

c.  A  recitation  upon  the  given  words  in  respect 
to  these  points. 

d.  The  consideration  and  discussion  of  the 
thought.  (The  supposition  being  that  the  mind  by  this 
considerable  and  minute  treatment  of  the  form,  has 
been  so  freed  from  it  as  to  be  able  to  turn  the  whole 
attention  upon  the  thought.) 

e.  (In  primary  classes).  Thecallingof  the  words 
from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  sentence  and  vice 
versa. 

f.  The  oral  reading. 

This  method  although  apparently  rational,  is  seen 
upon  close  reflection,  to  be  fallacious.  If  those  same 
words  with  their  peculiar  characteristics  of  form  and 
meaning  were  the  ones  that  were  to  appear  in  every 
possible  reading  lesson,  in  and  out  of  school,  the  theory 
would  then  hold  true;  and  it  would,  therefore,  be  the 
rational  order  of  work  to  first  devote  a  period  to  the 
mastery  of  this  universal  form  and  then  ever  after  be 
able  to  turn  the  undivided  attention  upon  the  thought. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  223 

But  such  is  not  the  case.  Each  selection  has  its  pecul- 
iar words  with  their  peculiar  characteristics.  And  to 
consider  them  first,  and  with  all  the  detail  indicated, 
tends  not  to  free  the  mind  from  them  but  to  engross  it 
with  them,  to  give  them  an  undue  prominence  in  the 
mind.  According  to  the  method  being  considered,  only 
about  one  third  of  the  time  is  devoted  to  the  thought 
element;  as  for  example,  upon  any  three  days'  work  with 
a  selection  it  usually  requires  one  day  upon  the  unfa- 
miliar words,  one  concerning  the  general  thought  and 
one  devoted  to  the  oral  expression;  or  if  but  one  day  is 
employed,  one  third  of  the  time  upon  the  first,  one 
third  upon  the  second  and  the  remainder  of  the  time 
upon  the  oral  expression. 

The  practical  results,  therefore,  of  reading  work  of  this 
character  are  : 

1.  To  give  great  prominence  to  the  formal  side,  and 
to  engross  the  mind  with  it. 

2.  To  disregard,  to  a  degree,  the  principle  of  proceed- 
ing from  the  known  to  the  related  unknown. 

3.  To  disregard  the  idea  that  the  mind  gains  most 
power,  when  in  each  exercise,  it  exerts  its  present  power 
to  the  highest  degree. 

The  general  mode  of  procedure  that  is  suitable  in  the 
reading  work  of  this  or  of  the  succeeding  stage  is  based 
upon  the  following  principles  : 

1.  The  aim  in  teaching  reading  is  to  confer  upon 
the  pupil  the  power  to  obtain  thought  from  language 
toithout  considering  the  spellingy  soundSy  pronunciation  and 
general  meaning  of  the  wordsj  except  in  a  very  subordinate 
degree. 


224  THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

2.  The  mind,  in  the  attempt  to  master  the  thought 
of  a  selection  must  exhaust  its  already  acquired  power 
and  knowledge  in  the  attempt  at  interpretation  before 
dealing  with  extraneous  aids.  That  is,  the  pupil's  ex- 
perience, knowledge,  and  power,  and  the  relations  of  the 
words  in  the  paragraphs  should  all  be  utilized  to  the  ut- 
most before  outside  agencies,  such  as  dictionaries,  etc., 
should  be  employed. 

3.  Spelling,  separate  sounds,  pronunciation,  etc.,  be- 
longing to  oral  reading,  should,  until  the  thought  is 
thoroughly  mastered,  be  kept  as  subordinate  as  possible. 

A  PREFERABLE  MODE  OF  PROCEDURE. 

The  plan  of  work  that  would  be  in  accord  with  these 
principles,  whether  the  lesson  is  upon  a  wbole  selection, 
a  paragraph  or  a  sentence  is — 

THOUGHT. 

1.  To  have  the  class  come  to  the  recitation  without 
having  considered  at  all  the  spelling,  sound  and  pronun- 
ciation, except  incidentally  or  unconsciously,  as  they 
would  necessarily  do  when  attempting  to  interpret 
the  thought.  The  pupils  are  not  in  their  preparation 
to  have  used  the  dictionary.  The  aim  is  to  have  the 
selection,  paragraph,  or  sentence  utter  to  them  its  entire 
thought  as  fully  as  possible  without  any  aid  outside  of 
it.  The  only  instruments  that  are  to  be  brought  to  bear 
upon  the  lesson  in  its  study  are  the  pupil's  previously 
acquired  knowledge  and  habits,  and  these  are  to  be 
pressed  to  the  full  test. 

2.  {In  the  recitation.)      The  teacher,  by  questions, 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  225 

applying  the  categories  informally  or  formally,  is  to  de- 
termine: 

a.  To  what  extent  the  pupil  has  come  into  posses- 
sion of  the  thought. 

b.  What  the  impediments  to  his  full  comprehen- 
sion of  the  thought  are,  i.e.,  where  his  difficulties  lie. 
There  will  thus  be  disclosed,  definitely  to  the  teacher, 
the  expressions  or  words  that,  for  want  of  comprehen- 
sion, stand  between  the  pupil  and  his  full  insight  into 
the  thought. 

3.  The  third  kind  of  work  is  to  concentrate  the  at- 
ii<»n    upon  these   difficulties.     No   extraneous  aids, 

iiowever,  such  as  the  dictionary,  are  to  be  used  at  this 
time.  The  teacher  is  by  question  and  suggestion  to 
irshal  and  bring  to  bear  upon  these  seemingly  un- 
uiiuiliar  words,  all  the  pupil's  related  knowledge;  all 
that  analogy  of  form  and  sound  have  previously  given 
him;  all  that  may  be  gathered  from  every  possible  re- 
lation as  indicated  or  suggested  in  the  paragraph  or  sen- 
tence, in  order  to  dissolve  the  difficulties  or  reduce  them 
t"  the  minimum. 

4.  If  there  still  remain  a  word  or  words  that  have 
not  yielded  to  the  previous  work,  such  word  or  words 
are  then  (in  the  recitation)  to  be  examined  in  the  dic- 
tionary, (if  the  class  is  advanced  enough  to  use  it)  or  ex- 
plained by  the  teacher  at  the  board,  and  so  intertwined 
with  the  pupil's  previous  ideas  and  vocabulary  that 
they  become  his  permanent  property.  If  it  is  not  de- 
sired to  investigate  these  words  during  the  recitation, 
the  pupils  may  be  asked  to  study  them  before  the  next 
recitation. 

16 


226  THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

The  objection  may  be  urged,  however,  that  in  the  an- 
swers required  in  the  work  suggested,  the  pupils  will 
necessarily  have  to  use  some  of  the  words  of  the  lesson, 
and  not  having  studiejj  the  spelling,  pronunciation,  etc., 
will  doubtless  make  mistakes  in  pronunciation,  and 
thereby  tend  to  fix  an  incorrect  habit. 

The  answer  is : 

1.  That  the  words  in  a  new  lesson  that  have  not 
been  made  familiar  to  sight  and  sound  by  the  child's 
experience  before  entering  school,  and  by  the  work  in 
reading  and  in  other  studies  are  much  fewer  than  would 
be  at  first  supposed. 

2.  That  if  the  pupils  do  frequently  mispronounce 
words  in  their  answers  it  is  much  better  that  these 
mechanical  mistakes  should  occur  (the  teacher  quietly 
correcting  them  at  the  time)  than  that  by  the  previous 
study  of  them  the  mind  should  be  prevented  from  giving 
the  thought  due  prominence,  and  from  gaining  the 
highest  degree  of  exercise. 

FORM. 

The  thought  of  the  selection,  paragraph,  or  sentence 
having  been  substantially  mastered,  the  attention  is 
then  to  be  turned  to  a  mastery  of  the  unfamiliar  ele- 
ments of  the  form,  i.  e.  pronunciation,  etc. 

In  this  work  essentially  the  same  kind  of  steps  would 
be  taken  as  have  been  suggested  for  the  thought  work. 
That  is,  the  thought  having  been  obtained,  the  teacher 
would : 

1.  Test  the  pupils  thoroughly  without  reference  to 
dictionaries  or  other  aids,  as  to  mastery  over  the  lan- 
guage in  regard  to  the  separate  sounds,  pronunciation, 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  227 

etc.,  in  order  to  determine  the  exact  location  of  their 
difficulties. 

2.  The  nature  and  extent  of  the  unknown  having 
thus  been  brought  clearly  before  both  the  pupil  and  the 
teacher,  the  efifort  is  then  to  be  made  to  translate  this 
unknown  into  the  known,  i.  e.  to  master  the  difficulties 
by  means  of  questions,  suggested  analogies  of  form, 
lines  of  relation  to  known  words  in  meaning,  inference, 
etc.,  before  resorting  to  the  dictionary,  or  to  explana- 
tions by  the  teacher. 

3.  If  any  difficulties  remain  unremoved  as  might 
be'  the  case  for  example  with  the  word  bade  on  account 
of  its  anomaly,  they  are  to  be  explained  by  blackboard 
work,  or  by  use  of  dictionary,  or  assigned  for  investiga- 
tion. 

ORAL   READING. 

In  the  oral  reading,  the  mistakes  in  emphasis,  inflec- 
tion, modulation,  etc.,  are  signals  of  defects  in  the 
thought.  They  are  effect.  The  want  of  comprehension  of 
the  thought  is  caiuse.  Remedies  should,  if  possible,  be 
<iirected  to  the  cause.  When  such  mistakes  occur, 
therefore,  the  attention  of  the  class  should  not  be  called 
to  them,  but  it  should  be  again  concentrated  upon  that 
element  of  the  thought,  which,  for  want  of  being  com- 
})rehended  or  felt,  caused  the  oral  mistake.  Whenever 
a  mistake  of  the  kind  mentioned  occurs,  it  should  serve 
as  a  notice  to  the  teacher  to  turn  quietly  to  the  thought, 
in  order  to  farther  investigate  it,  without  any  reference 
to  the  mistake  itself.  In  this  way  the  pupils  will  silent- 
ly imbibe  the  idea  that  a  mistake  in  emphasis,  modula- 
tion, etc.,  is  a  mistake  in  thought,  and  will  hence  acquire 


228  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

the  habit  of  dealing  with  the  mistake  at  the  root.  If  the 
mistake  is  more  mechanical,  as  articulation,  the  quality 
of  a  sound,  defect  in  the  use  of  the  vocal  organs,  etc.,  the 
nature  of  the  remedy  is  likewise  to  be  different.  Most 
of  the  work,  however,  upon  orthoepy,  diacritical  mark- 
ing, spelling,  etc.,  should  be  done  at  a  time  separate  from 
the  work  upon  either  silent  or  oral  reading. 

In  general  the  same  method  in  oral  reading  would  be 
employed  in  this  stage  as  in  the  advanced  stage.  The 
function  of  oral  reading  is  to  be  viewed,  however,  as 
indicated,  as  almost  wholly  a  .means  by  which  the 
teacher  is  enabled  to  look  into  the  mind  of  the  pupil 
and  determine  whether  he  has  grasped  the  thought,  and 
experienced  the  feeling. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK. 

It  is  not  the  intention  here  to  present  new  means  of 
interest,  but  merely  to  emphasize  the  value  of  old  and 
well  known  devices,  such  as : — 

1.  Illustration — objective,  pictorial  and  verbal. 

2.  Conversational  exercises. 

3.  Reading  to  pupils. 

The  first  means  is  based  upon  the  principles  that  the 
strongest  and  most  interesting  bond  of  association  that 
a  word  can  have  is  its  meaning  presented  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  form,  and  that,  other  things  being  equal, 
that  is  most  easily  acquired  and  best  retained,  which  is 
presented  most  concretely,  vividly  and  graphically. 
These  would  indicate  that  whenever  the  word  stands  for 
an  object,  the  object  should,  if  possible,  be  at  hand,  or  a 
representation  of  it  in  a  picture  or  upon  the  board,  in 
order  that  the  qualities  for  which  it  is  known  may  be 


THE   THEORY   OP   THE   SCHOOL.  229 

observed  and  associated  with  the  printed  form  which  is 
its  symbol.  There  are,  however,  many  words  that  are 
susceptible  of  neither  objective  nor  pictorial  illustration. 
These  are  to  be  made  vivid  in  their  significance  and 
therefore  interesting,  through  verbal  illustration,  i.  e., 
by  picturing  out  to  the  minds  of  the.  pupils,  the  ideas 
for  which  the  printed  forms  stand.  In  order  to  make 
the  mastery  of  such  words  interesting,  there  are  required 
verbal  comparison,  analogy  and  illustration  to  the  degree 
that  the  significance  shall  stand  out  present  to  the 
mind's  eye. 

In  reality  every  word  represents  an  object  or  a  com- 
bination of  objects,  and  may  therefore  be  made  strongly 
interesting  to  the  pupils  by  being  pictured  out  in  words 
representing  the  objects.  That  every  word  represents 
either  an  object  or  a  combination  of  objects  does  not  at 
first  appear ;  yet  a  close  analysis  of  even  such  words  as 
o/,  from^  this,  that^  towards,  resting,  etc.,  will  show  that 
each  represents  an  object  or  objects  in  certain  relations 
or  conditions. 

Pestalozzi  was  the  first  who  introduced  the  systematic 
use  of  objects  and  pictures  as  an  element  of  interest  and 
knowledge  in  language  work ;  but  long  before,  a  greater 
teacher  than  he,  one  who  "  spake  as  never  man  spake," 
gave  the  true  way  of  filling  every  abstract  term,  figura- 
tive word,  and  phrase  with  significance  and  interest  by 
the  simple  and  interesting  method  of  picturing  out  to 
the  mind's  eye  through  analogy  and  verbal  illustration. 
The  New  Testament  is  rich  in  examples  of  verbal  illus- 
tration. Among  them  will  be  remembered  the  follow- 
ing:— 


230  THE   THEORY   OP   THE   SCHOOL. 

When  the  Savior  wished  the  Jews  to  understand  His 
love  for  Jerusalem  and  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  in 
order  to  fill  these  phrases  to  the  utmost,  He  said — "0 
Jerusalem,  Jerusalem,  thou  that  killest  the  prophets, 
and  stonest  them  which  are  sent  unto  thee,  how  often 
would  I  have  gathereth  thy  children  together,  even  as  a 
hen  gathered  her  chickens  under  her  wings,  and  ye 
would  not !  Behold,  your  house  is  left  unto  you  deso- 
late." 

The  judicious  employment  of  the  device  of  picturing 
out  to  the  mind  in  reading  lessons  upon  all  appropriate 
occasions  will  tend  to  enrich  and  fill  with  interest  the 
usually  uninteresting  process  of  mastering  words  as 
forms.  It  may  be  said  in  objection  to  this  that  such  a 
process,  in  conjunction  with  the  other  forms  of  illustra- 
tion, would  require  too  much  time.  The  reply  is  that 
mere  instruction,  the  mere  lodging  in  the  memory  of 
word-forms  may  be  pressed,  but  that  education  is  of 
slow  growth. 

The  second  means — conversational  exercises — is  based 
upon  the  principles  that  education  is  a  process  in  which 
mind  addresses  mind,  and  that  in  order  that  the  pro- 
cess may  be  successful,  there  must  be  sympathetic  har- 
mony between  the  minds  to  insure  freedom  of  mind 
action  on  the  part  of  those  addressed.  It  should  there- 
fore be  the  constant  aim  in  the  early  reading  work,  to 
foster,  by  using  every  fitting  opportunity,  that  sym- 
pathy and  freedom  which  will  arise  from  the  interweav- 
ing of  conversation  and  instruction  upon  the  forms  of 
words.  This  is  one  of  the  most  accessible  approaches 
to  the  interest  of  the  child. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  231 

The  third  means — reading  to  children — is  employed 
to  confessedly  great  advantage  in  the  family,  and  it  is 
somewhat  strange  that  it  is  neglected  to  so  great  an  ex- 
tent in  many  schools.  Reading  to  pupils  has,  clearly, 
two  advantages  : — 

First,  it  furnishes  a  strong  stimulus  to  the  pupils  to 
learn  to  read  for  themselves ;  and  this  is  peculiar  to  it 
in  distinction  from  telling  the  same  thing  to  the  pupils 
in  the  teacher's  own  words.  The  teacher  should  read 
to  the  school;  interest  them  in  what  he  reads  by  cluster- 
ing pleasant  associations  round  the  book  ;  and  lead  the 
children  to  see  that  he  gains  a  large  part  of  his  knowl- 
edge from  books. 

If  the  children  are  thus  frequently  shown  both  direct- 
ly and  indirectly  the  pleasures  of  reading  for  them- 
selves, an  incentive  to  master  the  formal,  hard,  dry  side 
of  reading  will  naturally  arise  in  the  mind,  because  of 
the  desire  to  take  possession  of  the  beauty  and  enchant- 
ment which  the  form  has  within  it,  forever  locked  away 
and  hidden  from  all  not  possessed  of  the  key — power  to 
read. 

The  second  advantage  of  reading  to  pupils  is  the  cul- 
ture that  it  brings  to  the  imaginative,  moral,  and  aes- 
thetic natures,  to  which  it  should  be  addressed. 

Direct  address,  or  the  telling  of  stories  to  the  children 
may,  it  is  true,  accomplish  the  same  end ;  but  even  if 
all  teachers  possessed  the  grace  and  charm  of  narration 
that  is  found  in  the  works  of  Irving,  Prescott,  Dickens, 
Miss  Alcott,  and  like  writers,  which  is  not  the  case,  their 
power  would  be  greatly  extended  by  the  use  of  books. 
These  present  a  large  range  of  beautiful  ideas  clothed 


232  THE   THEORY   OF   THl^   SCHOOL. 

in  elegant  and  graceful  drapery,  giving  them  a  perma- 
nent existence  to  which  the  child  may  be  led  again  and 
again,  each  time  with  renewed  pleasure ;  for  the  child 
delights  in  an  old  story,  because  all  his  surroundings 
are  new  to  him,  and  he  seeks  repose  from  novelty  in 
familiarity,  just  as  when  the  world  grows  old  to  the 
mature,  they  seek  a  change  from  monotony  in  novelty. 

Reading  to  children,  in  addition  to  interesting  them, 
tends,  if  rightly  conducted,  to  confer  that  which  is  one 
great  aim  of  education — the  power  of  close  and  self- 
sustaining  attention. 

The  books  from  which  to  read  belong  to  two  classes — 
those  whose  subject-matter  is  real,  and  those  in  which 
it  is  imaginative.  Of  the  former,  many  incidents  of 
biography  and  history  may  be  employed,  but  not  to  so 
great  a  degree  as  might  at  first  be  supposed,  because  they 
do  not,  in  a  large  measure,  present  the  quiet  and 
unobtrusive  virtues,  but  are,  in  many  cases,  connected 
with  wrong,  oppression,  and  punishment. 

In  addition  to  this,  the  most  of  biographies  and  his- 
tories are  written  for  adults,  and  need  much  modifica- 
tion in  order  that  they  may  be  available  for  primary 
work. 

The  second  class  of  books — the  imaginative — has,  to 
a  great  extent,  been  sent  into  exile  by  the  utilitarian 
spirit,  which  prevails  to  a  harmful  degree  in  the  public 
schools.  Almost  all  of  the  old  nursery  and  fairy  tales 
have  been  banished  by  this  spirit,  but  they  should  be 
recalled  and  used  again,  being  fitted  for  all  children 
in  all  times.  They  are  much  superior  in  respect  of 
healthy  influence,  to  many  that  have  superseded  them. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  233 

They  develop  the  imao^ination,  amuse  and  interest,  and 
are,  at  the  same  time  educating,  since  they  have,  espe- 
cially the  fairy  tales,  a  distinct  moral  influence,  separat- 
ing the  good  from  the  bad  by  an  impassable  gulf.  The 
spirit  which  would  make  the  public  school  a  mere  drill- 
ground  on  which  to  prepare  the  child  to  earn  his  daily 
bread,  would  exclude  all  these  primary  imaginative 
tales  from  the  realm  of  educative  influence,  and  from 
the  schools,  disregarding  the  fact  that  the  aesthetic  faculty 
is  one  of  the  earliest  to  unfold  in  the  mind  of  the  child. 

The  aesthetic  nature  is  regarded  by  Herbert  Spencer 
as  the  mere  ornament  of  life — the  "efl'ervescence  of  civ- 
ilization," the  culture  of  which  may  be  deferred  to  some 
distant  day  of  idle  leisure  in  a  future  golden  age,  in 
order  meantime  to  press  forward  the  studies  necessary 
for  the  preservation  and  maintenance  of  material  exist- 
ence. "When,"  says  that  distinguished  thinker,  "the 
forces  of  Nature  have  been  fully  conquered  to  man's 
use,  when  the  means  of  production  have  been  brought 
to  perfection,  when  labor  has  been  economized  to  the 
highest  degree,  when  education  has  been  so  systemat- 
ized that  a  preparation  for  the  more  essential  activities 
may  be  made  with  comparative  rapidity,  and  when  con- 
sequently, there  is  a  great  increase  of  spare  time,  then 
will  the  Beautiful,  both  in  Art  and  Nature,  rightly  fill  a 
large  space  in  the  minds  of  all." 

The  scheme  of  education  as  given  by  Alexander  Bain 
would  also  exclude  from  the  schools  this  important 
means  of  arousing  interest,  and  relegate  it  to  the  family. 
He  regards  early  imaginative  literature  as  only  "  a  means 
for  indulging  the  emotions, — an  ingredient  in  the  satis- 


234  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

faction  of  life,"  going  on  to  state — "  In  addition  to  our 
enjoyment  gained  from  realities,  we  crave  for  the  con- 
tribution to  our  enjoyment  which  comes  from  ideality. 
Now  Ideality  is  a  diiferent  thing  in  different  ages, — 
fairy  tales  and  extravaganzas  for  the  young;  the  poetry 
of  Milton  for  the  old.  There  is  nothing  educative  in 
the  first  instance ;  we  are  not  aiming  at  instruction,  but 
drinking  in  emotion.  The  gratifying  of  children  with 
the  literature  of  the  imagination  is  a  matter  for  the 
parent  as  much  as  giving  them  country  walks  or  holi- 
day treats." 

Both  of  these  eminent  educators  seem  to  ignore  to  too 
great  a  degree  the  fact  that  the  aesthetic  faculty  is  one  of 
the  earliest  to  unfold,  and  that  therefore  primary  im- 
aginative literature  becomes  educative  ;  and  also  that  it 
is  one  of  the  great  means  of  interest  in  the  formal  or 
primary  side  of  reading,  in  that  it  opens  enchanted  ground^ 
and  wonder-land^  in  connection  with  that  subject. 

If  it  were  possible  to  separate  education  from  inter- 
est, and  to  contract  it  into  a  training  which  had  for  its 
first  object  the  obtaining  of  the  means  for  improved 
material  existence,  it  might  well  be  asked  whether  the 
race  so  trained  would  be  likely  to  have  any  large  space 
of  mind  left  to  be  filled  by  beauty  in  the  idle  years, 
after  nature  had  been  forced  to  contribute  all  she  could 
to  man's  material  prosperity. 

A  school  training  separated  from  interest  and  aesthetics, 
through  the  early  formative  years  would  tend  to  lead 
those  who  come  under  its  influence  to  say  at  last, — 


THE    THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  235 

'*  Little  we  see  in  Nature  that  is  ours, 
We  have  given  our  hearts  away,  a  sordid  boon. 
This  sea,  that  bares  her  bosom  to  the  moon, 
The  winds,  that  will  be  howling  at  all  hours 
And  are  up-gathered  now  like  sleeping  flowers, 
For  this,  for  everything  we  are  out  of  tune ; 
It  moves  us  not." 

Some  of  the  books  that  are  considered  favorable  are : — 
Jane  Austin's  novels,  (realistic.) 
Anderson's  Fairy  Tales. 
iEsop's  Fables.     Robinson  Crusoe. 
Little  Folks  in  Fur  and  Feathers. 
Near  Home  and  Far  Off. 
Extracts  from  such  writers  as  Miss  Edge  worth,  Mrs. 
Barbauld,  Miss  Alcott,  "  Peter  Parley,"  "  Sophie  May," 
"H.H."  and  others. 

Johonnot's  Natural  History  Series. — D  Appleton  &  Co. 

1.  Cats  and  Dogs,  and  other  Friends. 

2.  Friends  in  Feathers  and  Fur. 

3.  Neighbors  with  Wings  and  Fins. 

Such  Periodicals  as  St.  Nicholas,  Youths'  Companion. 
Harper's  Young  Folks,  the  Wide-Awake,  The  Century, 
Harper's  Magazine  and  Weekly  (judiciously  used),  The 
Nursery,  Our  Little  Men  and  Women,  and  others. 

ADVANCED    READING. 

DEFINITION. 

THE   WHOLE   OF  WHICH   THE   SUBJECT   OF   REAOINQ   16   A   PART. 

"Reading  belongs  to  the  group  of  language  studies,  the 
other  studies  of  which  are  rhetoric,  composition,  litera- 
ture, grammar,  orthography  and  orthoepy.  These  sub- 
jects are  called  language  studies  because  their  subject- 


236  THE    THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

matter  is  language  and  their  purpose  is  to  give  skill  in 
the  interpretation  and  use  of  language. 

COMPARISON   OF   LANGUAGE   STUDIES   AND   OTHER    STUDIES. 

Language  is  involved  in  all  thinking  and  hence  all 
subjects,  especially  those  involving  the  use  of  text-books, 
give  skill  in  the  interpretation  and  use  of  language;  in 
this  respect  language  studies  and  all  other  studies  are 
alike. 

LANGUAGE  STUDIES  CONTRASTED  WITH  OTHER  STUDIES. 

Between  the  two  groups  of  studies  there  is  this  differ- 
ence. In  the  language  studies  the  thought  expressed  is 
incidental  to  the  manner  of  expressing  it ;  in  other  sub- 
jects the  language  is  incidental  and  the  attention  is 
directed  mainly  to  the  thought  expressed  rather  than  to 
the  manner  of  expressing  it.  In  other  words,  in  lan- 
guage studies  the  thought  expressed  is  regarded  as  a 
means  of  exhibiting  the  forms  of  language ;  in  studies 
other  than  language  studies  the  language  employed  is 
regarded  as  a  means  of  exhibiting  the  thought.  One 
teaches  the  form  by  means  of  the  content,  the  other 
teaches  the  content  by  means  of  the  form. 

LANGUAGE   STUDIES   SEPARATED   INTO   GROUPS. 

Language  studies  naturally  divide  themselves  into 
three  groups  on  basis  of  the  parts  of  language  with 
which  they  deal:  1.  Word  studies. — Orthography  and 
Orthoepy.  2.  Sentence  study. — Grammar.  3.  Discourse 
studies. — Rhetoric,  Composition  and  Reading. 

DISCOURSE   STUDIES   COMPARED. 

Discourse  studies  are  alike  in  that  they  deal  with  dis- 
course as  a  whole  rather  than  with  its  parts  as  in  the 
case  of  orthography,  orthoepy  and  grammar. 


THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  237 

READING   CONTRASTED   WITH    COMPOSITION 

Composition  deals  with  the  synthesis  of  discourse. 
Reading  deals  with  the  analysis  of  discourse.  The  one 
organizes  the  parts  into  a  whole,  the  other  separates  the 
whole  into  parts.  The  one  teaches  involution,  the  other 
how  to  deal  with  what  has  been  involved.  While  analy- 
sis and  synthesis  are  present  in  both  cases,  they  are  not 
employed  in  both  cases  in  the  same  way.  The  com- 
poser first  analyzes  his  subject,  then  synthesizes  the 
parts  into  a  connected  whole.  The  reader  first  compre- 
hends vaguely  by  means  of  synthesis  the  subject  as  a 
whole ;  and  then  more  largely  by  analyzing  or  separat- 
ing it  into  its  parts ;  and  by  synthesizing  or  determin- 
ing the  relation  of  these  parts.  He  begins  and  ends 
with  synthesis,  and  employs  analysis  as  an  interme- 
diate step. 

THE   RELATION   OF   READING  AND   LITERATURE   TO   OTHER  SUBJECTS. 

Discourse  represents  products  of  three  forms  of  mental 
activity — intellect,  sensibility  and  will.  Studies  other 
than  literature  and  reading  whether  language  studies  or 
not  deal  mainly  with  didactic  discourse  or  the  discourse 
of  pure  intellect :  they  represent  thought  and  awaken 
thought  in  the  student.  Literature  proper  is  that  kind 
of  discourse  which  represents  products  or  states  of  the 
sensibility,  and  which  tends  to  stimulate  those  powers  in 
the  mind  of  the  reader.  Other  discourse  gives  power 
to  the  intellect  mainly.  Literature  is  addressed  to  uni- 
versal human  nature  and  gives  power  to  our  whole 
spiritual  being.  A  marked  difference  exists  between  the 
two  kinds  of  discourse,  whether  regarded  as  to  form  or 


238  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

content.  The  content  of  one  is  addressed  to  the  under- 
standing and  is  written  in  the  language  of  the  under- 
standing, or  in  the  language  of  science  :  the  content  of 
the  other  is  addressed  to  the  sensibility  and  is  presented 
in  a  sensuous  form  or  in  the  language  of  the  imagina- 
tion. Both  reading  and  literature  deal  with  this  kind 
of  discourse.     In  this  respect  they  are  alike. 

READING  CONTRASTED   WITH    LITERATURE. 

There  must  be  in  the  mind  of  the  student  a  condition 
that  shall  constitute  a  proper  basis  of  the  psychological 
states  of  the  author  which  he  is  expected  to  experience. 
The  principles  of  conduct  presented  must  be  identical 
with  or  similar  to  those  involved  in  the  simple  problems 
of  life  which  have  already  confronted  him  and  com- 
manded his  attention.  The  language  employed  must 
be  such  that  he  can  with  reasonable  effort  master  it. 
Having  mastered  the  principles  of  conduct,  the  value 
of  which  his  own  experience  enables  him  to  appreciate, 
and  having  been  exercised  in  the  simple  forms  of  ex- 
pression, and  being  strengthened  in  his  imagination  by 
the  short  flight  presented  in  his  school  reader,  he  has 
been  furnished  a  basis  for  the  deeper  problems  of  phi- 
losophy, the  subtlet  elements  of  style  and  the  more  sus- 
tained flights  of  the  imagination,  presented  in  the  more 
advanced  grades  of  literature  such  as  the  book  of  Job, 
Paradise  Lost,  or  the  plays  of  Shakespeare.  Reading  is 
primary  or  elementary  literature.  Literature  is  advanc- 
ed reading.  There  is  this  further  difierence  between  the 
reading  work  and  literature;  literature  is  studied  for 
its  own  sake  in  a  sense  that  reading  is  not.     Reading  is 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  239 

preparatory  to  not  only  literature  but  to  other  subjects 
in  that  it  seeks  to  give  skill  in  the  interpretation  of  all  dis- 
course. 

READING   CONTRASTED  WITH   OTHER   SUBJECTS. 

It  is  generally  held  that  pupils  should  receive  in- 
struction and  deal  in  the  art  of  oral  expression :  and 
that  the  subject  of  reading  should  secure  to  him  this  drill. 
All  subjects  that  require  the  student  to  talk  give  skill  in 
the  oral  expression  of  thought,  but  not  in  the  expres- 
sion of  feeling.  Some  subjects  do  not  give  this  drill 
because:  1.  The  matter  dealt  with,  being  deductive 
does  not  furnish  the  proper  occasion  for  such  expres- 
sion. 2.  In  these  as  well  as  in  case  of  subjects  the 
matter  of  which  is  appropriate  to  such  expression  no 
attempt  is  made  to  give  it  because  such  a  result  would 
be  foreign  to  the  end.  3.  The  matter  in  the  reader  fur- 
nishes a  variety  of  expression  and  it  is  held  to  be  the 
study  of  the  teacher  to  give  the  student  instruction  in 
this  art.  Reading  should  teach  the  forms  of  expression 
appropriate  to  various  typical  feelings  and  the  principles 
involved  in  the  oral  expression  of  thought  learned  in 
other  subjects,  and  the  thought  employed  in  conversa- 

u. 

KINDS. 

Reading  may  be  separated  into  kinds  or  classes  on 
several  bases. 

ON    BASIS    OF   AIM. 

SHent  reading,  i.  e.,  that  in  which  the  purpose  is  to 
experience  the  thought  expressed  and  suggested  by  the 
composition. 

Oral  reading,  i.  e.  that  in  which  the  aim  is  to  give  the 


I 


240  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

power  to  decide  the  oral  expression  suitable  to  the 
thought,  and  to  cause  others  to  experience  the  thought 
by  giving  adequate  oral  expression  in  the  words  of  the 
author. 

ON  BASIS  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER. 

Discourse  contains  products  of  the  three  forms  of 
mental  activity :  on  this  basis  we  have  the  three  kinds 
of  reading. 

1.  Thought  reading,  or  the  reading  of  matter  that 
seeks  to  awaken  thought. 

2.  Emotional  reading  or  the  reading  of  matter 
which  seeks  to  excite  the  sensibilities. 

3.  Ethical  reading,  or  the  reading  of  matter  which 
seeks  to  influence  the  reader's  thought  and  determine 
his  action. 

Thought  is  the  necessary  condition  of  feeling  and 
volition  and  hence  whatever  feeling  or  choice  the  author 
seeks  to  inspire  in  the  reader  or  whatever  course  Qf  ac- 
tion he  would  lead  him  to  adopt,  he  first  seeks  to  com- 
municate some  idea  or  thought  as  the  condition  of  the 
ethical  or  emotional  end  in  view. 

ON   BASIS  OF   FORM, 

Form  is  the  means  which  the  author  employs  to  re- 
present thought,  feeling  and  volition. 

1.  The  reading  of  narration  or  reading  of  discourse 
which  represents  events  succeeding  each  other  in  time. 

2.  The  reading  of  description  or  the  reading  of  that 
which  represents  complex  objects  and  their  attributes. 

3.  The  reading  of  exposition  or  the  reading  of  dis- 
course which  deals  with  definition  and  arguments. 


THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  241 

4.  The  reading  of  mixed  forms  or  the  reading 
of  that  discourse  which  contains  several  of  the  above 
forms. 

THE   STUDY  OF  WORDS. 

In  the  study  of  a  selection  as  a  whole  there  are  in- 
volved : 

1.  The  study  of  the  literal  meaning  of  words  or  the 
-tudy  of  words  which  give  to  objects  of  thought  attri- 

utes  and  relations  which  they  actually  possess,  and 
which  directly  express  objects  of  thought,  attributes 
and  relations  by  naming  them.  In  studying  the  literal 
meaning  of  a  word,  its  derivation  and  generally  except- 
ed meaning  should  be  learned.  Thus  a  valuable  addi- 
tion   to    the    student's    general    vocabulary    is   made 

nd  the  habit  of  critically  studying  the  meaning  of 
words  is  cultivated. 

2.  Its  meaning  in  the  content.  This  is  necessary 
in  order  to  understand  the  author's  meaning. 

3.  The  figurative  meaning."* 

In  order  to  be  able  to  direct  the  work  in  all  these 

phases   the  teacher  should  understand    the  process  of 

''Ought  analysis  ;    etymology,  or  the  de^'ivation  of  words  ; 

nd  the  distinction  between  language  of  the  understand- 

''ng  and  language  of  the  imagination. 

THODOHT  ANALYSIS. 

Those  things  which  are  the  ground  for  the  employ- 
nent  of  the  categories  or  forms  of  knowledge  in  the  inter- 
I  'Fetation  of  discourse  are : 


'Joseph  Cashabt,  DePauw  University. 

17 


242  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

1.  The  mind  in  its  processes  of  thinking,  in  the 
formation  of  its  mental  products,  involves  and  assumes 
certain  categories  or  forms  of  knowledge  according  to 
which  it  performs  its  thinking,  and  constructs  its  pro- 
ducts. 

These  categories  are: — 

Substance ;     Attribute  ;    Time  ;    Space ;    Similarity ; 
Diversity;  Whole;  Part;  Cause;  Effect;  Design;  etc. 

2.  Literature  or  reading  is  objective  thought.  That 
is,  any  selection  in  literature,  as  Gray's  Elegy,  is  the  life 
or  thought  of  the  author  put  forth  in  objective  or  visi- 
ble form — in  language.  The  Elegy  then  is  a  mental 
product,  projected  into  the  outer  world.  Since  its  for- 
mation as  a  mental  product  involved  the  relations  re- 
ferred to,  it,  as  an  element  of  thought  or  life  made  ob- 
jective, still  involves  them.  Moreover,  the  mind  that  is  to 
approach  it  and  awaken  it  to  life  again,  i.  e.  to  re- think 
it,  is  itself  subject  in  its  processes  of  thinking  to  the 
same  fundamental  relations  as  the  author  who  thought 
the  Elegy  and  gave  it  concrete  form.  To  re-think  the 
poem  the  mind  of  the  learner  must  move  forward  upon 
the  same  categories  or  forms  of  knowledge  that  the  poet  of 
necessity  employed.  The  question  naturally  arises, — 
Under  what  forms  oj  knowledge  or  thinking,  did  the  poet 
produce  his  work  ? 

Could  the  scene  have  been  imaged  by   the  authoi 
without  involving  the  idea  or  category  of  space  ?    Thf 
it  could  is  inconceivable.    Then  the  one  who  is  to  re 
think  it  must    do  so  under  this  relation.     Could  th| 
writer    have  produced  it  without  assuming  the  cat 
gory  of  design,  and  without  viewing  it  as  a  whole  an^ 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  243 

as  consisting  of  parts,  and  could  he  do  otherwise  than 
to  think  tiie  whole,  and  each  part  under  the  relation 
of  design  ?  The  mind  can  not  conceive  that  this  is 
possible.  Then  the  learner  is  to  consider  it  under  the 
relations  or  categories  of  design  and  of  whole  and  part, 
etc. 

The  practical  form  of  the  questions  that  direct  the 
mind  in  its  consideration  of  any  selection  under  these 
forms  of  knowledge  or  categories,  has  been  given  as  follows : 
("it"  indicating  to  the  mind,  but  not  naming,  the  sub- 
ject of  the  selection  or  lesson). 

1.  What  is  (or  was)  it  ? — (Category  of  Substance 
and  Attribute.) 

2.  When  is  (or  was)  it? — (Category  of  Time.) 

3.  Where  is  (or  was)  it? — (Category  of  Space.) 

4.  Why  is  (or  was)  it  ?-^(Category  of  Cause  and 
Effect.) 

5.  The  purpose  of  it  ? — (Category  of  Design.) 

6.  The  whole  of  which  it  is  a  part  ? — (Category  of 
Whole  and  Part.) 

7.  The  parts  of  it  ?~(Category  of  Whole  arid  Part.) 

8.  What  is  (or  was)  it  like? — (Category  of  Simi- 
larity.) 

9.  What  is  (or  was)  it  unlike? — (Category  of  Diver- 
sity.) 

10.  What  is  (or  was)  the  effect  of  it? — (Category 
of  Cause  and  Effect.) 

The  province,  force,  and  value  of  the  categories  in 
their  application  to  reading  work  may  be  understood, 
to  a  degree,  by  a  careful  consideration  of  the  following 
selections  and  their  accompanying  analyses : 


244"  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

THE    DISCONTENTED   PENDULUM. 

"An  old  clock,  that  had  stood  for  fifty  years  in  a  far- 
mer's kitchen  without  giving  its  owner  any  cause  of 
complaint,  early  one  summer's  morning,  before  the  fam- 
ily was  stirring,  suddenly  stopped.  Upon  this  the  Dial- 
plate  (if  we  may  credit  the  fable)  changed  countenance 
with  alarm ;  the  Hands  made  an  ineffectual  effort  to 
continue  their  course ;  the  Wheels  remained  motionless 
with  surprise;  the  Weights  hung  speechless.  Each 
member  felt  disposed  to  lay  the  blame  on  the  others. 

At  length  the  Dial  instituted  a  formal  inquiry  into 
the  cause  of  the  stop,  when  Hands,  Wheels,  Weights, 
with  one  voice  protested  their  innocence.  But  now  a 
faint  tick  was  heard  from  the  Pendulum,  who  thus 
spoke : 

'I  confess  myself  to  be  the  sole  cause  of  the  present 
stoppage,  and  am  willing,  for  the  general  satisfaction, 
to  assign  my  reasons.  The  truth  is  that  I  am  tired  of 
ticking.'  Upon  hearing  this,  the  old  Clock  became  so 
enraged  that  it  was  on  the  point  of  striking. 

'Lazy  Wire!  '  exclaimed  the  Dial-plate. — 'As  to 
that,'  replied  the  Pendulum,  'it  is  vastly  easy  for  you, 
Mistress  Dial,  who  have  always,  as  everybody  knows, 
set  yourself  up  above  me — it  is  vastly  easy  for  you,  I 
say,  to  accuse  other  people  of  laziness — you  who  have 
nothing  to  do  all  your  life  but  to  stare  people  in  thej 
face,  and  to  amuse  yourself  with  watching  all  that  go( 
on  in  the  kitchen.' 

'Think,  I  beseech  you,  how  you  would  like  to 
shut  up  for  life  in  this  dark  closet,  and  wag  backward 
and  forward  year  after  year,  as  I  do.'  —  'As  to  that 


THE   THEORY  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  245 

id  the  Dial,  *is  there  not  a  window  in  your  house  on 
purpose  for  you  to  look  through  ?  ' 

'But    what    of   that?'     resumed    the     Pendulum. 

*  Although  there  is  a  window,  I  dare  not  stop,  even  for 
an  instant,  to  look  out.  Besides,  I  am  really  weary  of 
my  way  of  life;  and,  if  you  please,  I'll  tell  you  how  I 
took  this  disgust  at  my  employment.' 

'This  morning  I  happened  to  be  calculating  how 
many  times  I  should  have  to  tick  in  the  course  only 
of  the  next  twenty-four  hours — perhaps  some  of  you 
above  there  can  tell  me  the  exact  sum  ?  '  ,  The  Minute- 
hand  being  quick  at  figures,  instantly  replied — '  Eighty - 
six  thousand  four  hundred  times.'  —  'Exactly  so,'  re- 
plied the  Pendulum. 

'  Well,  I  appeal  to  you  all  if  the  thought  of  this  was 
not  enough  to  fatigue  one  ?  And  when  I  began  to  mul- 
tiply the  strokes  of  one  day  by  those  of  months  and 
years,  really  it  is  no  wonder  if  I  felt  discouraged  at  the 
prospect;  so,  after  a  great  deal  of  reasoning  and  hesi- 
tation, thought  I  to  myself,  '  I'll  stop  ! ' 

The  Dial  could  scarcely  keep  its  countenance  during 
tliis  harangue ;  but,  resuming  its  gravity,  thus  replied : 

*  Dear  Mr.  Pendulum,  I  am  really  astonished  that  such 
a  useful,  industrious  person  as  yourself  should  have 
been  overcome  by  this  suggestion. 

'  It  is  true,  you  have  done  a  great  deal  of  work  in 
your  time;  so  have  we  all,  and  are  likely  to  do;  and 
though  this  may  fatigue  us  to  think  of,  the  question  is, 
Will  it  fatigue  us  to  dof  Would  you  now  do  me  the 
favor  to  give  about  half  a  dozen  strokes,  to  illustrate  my 


246  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

argument?  '  The  Pendulum  complied,  and  ticked  six 
times  at  its  usual  pace. 

'Now,'  resumed  the  Dial,  'was  that  exertion  fatiguing 
to  you  ? ' — '  Not  in  the  least,'  replied  the  Pendulum ; 
'  it  is  not  of  six  strokes  that  I  complain,  nor  of  sixty, 
but  of  millions.' 

'Very  good,'  replied  the  Dial;  'but  recollect  that, 
although  you  may  thinh  of  a  million  strokes  in  an  in- 
stant, you  are  required  to  execute  but  one;  and  that, 
however  often  you  may  hereafter  have  to  swing,  a  mo- 
ment will  always  be  given  you  to  swing  in.' 

'  That  consideration  staggers  me,  I  confess,'  said  the 
Pendulum. —  '  Then  I  hope,'  added  the  Dial-plate,  '  we 
shall  all  immediately  return  to  our  duty,  for  the  people 
will  lie  in  bed  till  noon  if  we  stand  idling  thus.' 

Upon  this,  the  Weights,  who  had  never  been  accused 
of  light  conduct,  used  all  their  influence  in  urging  him 
to  proceed ;  when,  as  with  one  consent,  the  Wheels  be- 
gan to  turn,  the  Hands  began  to  move,  the  Pendulum 
began  to  swing,  and,  to  its  credit,  ticked  as  loud  as  ever ; 
while  a  beam  of  the  rising  sun,  that  streamed  through 
a  hole  in  the  kitchen-shutter,  shining  full  upon  the 
Dial-plate,  made  it  brighten  up  as  if  nothing  had  been 
the  matter. 

When  the  farmer  came  down  to  breakfast,  he  de- 
clared, upon  looking  at  the  Clock,  that  his  watch  had 
gained  half  an  hour  in  the  night." 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  247 

THOUGHT  ANALYSIS. 
Written  as  a  Class  Exercise. 

1.  Subject.  (  Category  of  substance  and  attri- 
bute.^ The  conversation  betwee?t  the  different 
members  of  the  clock. 

2.  Time.  (^Category  of  time ^  A  summer 
m,orning,  one  half  hour  before  sun-rise,  fify 
years  after  the  clock  had  been  placed  in  the 
kitchen. 

J.  Place.  i^Cdtegory  of  place. ^  On  the  west 
side  of  the  farmer  s  kitchen. 

4.  Cause.      [Category  of  cause  and  effect.') 

a.  The  weariness  of  the  Pendulum. 

b.  The  stoppage. 

c.  Su7^prise  of  the  other  members  of  the  clock. 

d.  The  inquiry  made  by  the  Dial. 

e.  The  protestation  of  in^iocence. 

5.  Effect.  [Category  of  cause  and  effect.) 
Special  effort  made  by  other  members  of  the 
clotky  and  the  return  of  the  Pe7idulum  to  duty. 

6.  Purpose.     [Category  of  design.) 

a.  Of  Pendulum.      To  justify  hitnself 

b.  Of  Dial.      To  secure  the  willing  service 
of  the  Pendulum. 

c.  Of  the  Author.      To  teach  that  it  is  bet- 
ter to  work  than  to  do  nothing. 


248  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

7.  Parts.    (  Category  of  whole  and  part  ^ 

a.  0?i  basis  of  characters. 
(1.)  Pendulum. 

(2.)    Weights. 
(3.)    Wheels. 
(4.)  Hands. 
(5.)  Dial. 

b.  On  basis  of  ideas  expressed. 
(1.)   Co7ifession  as  to  the  cause  of  stop- 


page. 


use  it. 


(2.)  Angry  retort. 

(3.)  Sarcastic  reply. 

(4.)    Cofnplaint  as  to  dark  room. 

(5.)  Mention  of  a  window. 

(6.)    Complaint  that  there  is  no  time  to 


(7.)  Reason  for  stopping. 
(8.)  Acknowledgment    that    it    was   the 
work  of  the  Pendulum. 
(9.)    The  request. 
(10.)    Compliance. 
(11.)   Question  as  to  fatigue. 
(12.)  Reply. 

(13.)  Forcible  statement. 
(14.)    Confession. 
8.    Whole.     {^Category  of  whole  and  part?) 


THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  249 

This  is  a  fable  a7id  fables  belo7ig  to  narration. 

g.  Comparison.  (  Category  of  similarity  and 
diversity.^  The  dial,  weights,  wheels  and  hands 
were  alike  in  that  they  were  willing  to  do  their 
duty  and  were  willing  to  assist  others  to  do 
their  s.  The  pe7idulum  was  easily  discouraged, 
but  when  convinced,  was  willifig  to  do  the  right, 

QRAY'8   ELEQY. 

The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day, 

The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea, 

The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. 

Now  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  sight, 

And  all  the  air  a  solemn  stillness  holds. 
Save  where  the  beetle  wheels  his  droning  flight, 

And  drowsy  tinklings  lull  the  distant  folds : 

Save  that  from  yonder  ivy  mantled  tow'r, 

The  moping  owl  does  to  the  moon  complain 

Of  such  as,  wand'ring  near  her  secret  bow'r, 
Molest  her  ancient  solitary  reign. 

Beneath  those  rugged  elms,  that  yew-tree's  shade. 

Where  heaves  the  turf  in  many  a  mould'ring  heap, 

Each  in  his  narrow  cell  for  ever  laid. 

The  rude  forefathers  of  the  hamlet  sleep. 

The  breezy  call  of  Incense-breathing  mom, 

The  swallow  twitt'ring  fi-om  the  straw-built  shed 

The  cock's  shrill  clarion,  or  the  echoing  horn. 

No  more  shall  rouse  them  from  their  lowly  bed. 

For  them  no  more  the  blazing  hearth  shall  bum, 
Or  busy  housewife  ply  her  evening  care ; 

No  children  run  to  lisp  their  sire's  return, 

Or  climb  his  knee  the  envied  kiss  to  share. 


250  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


Oft  did  the  harvest  to  their  sickles  yield, 

Their  furrow  oft  the  stubborn  glebe  has  broke : 

How  jocund  did  they  drive  their  teams  afield ! 

How  bow'd  the  woods  beneath  their  sturdy  stroke ! 

Let  not  ambition  mock  their  useful  toil, 

Their  homely  joys,  and  destiny  obscure : 

Nor  grandeur  hear  with  a  disdainful  smile. 

The  short  and  simple  annals  of  the  poor. 

The  boast  of  heraldry,  the  pomp  of  power 

And  all  that  beauty,  all  that  wealth  ere  gave, 

Await  alike  th'  inevitable  hour. 

The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave. 

Nor  you.  ye  proud,  impute  to  these  the  fault, 

If  memory  o'er  their  tomb  no  trophies  raise. 

Where  through  the  long-drawn  aisle  and  fretted  vault, 
The  pealing  anthem  swells  the  note  of  praise. 

Can  storied  urn,  or  animated  bust, 

Back  to  its  mansion  call  the  fleeting  breath? 
Can  honour's  voice  provoke  the  silent  dust, 

Or  flatt'ry  soothe  the  dull  cold  ear  of  death? 

Perhaps  in  this  neglected  spot  is  laid 

Some  heart  once  pregnant  with  celestial  fire ; 

Hands,  that  the  rod  of  empire  might  have  sway'd, 
Or  wak'd  to  ecstasy  the  living  lyre. 

But  knowledge  to  their  eyes  her  ample  page 

Rich  with  the  spoils  of  time  did  ne'er  unroll ; 

Chill  penury  repress'd  their  noble  rage, 

And  froze  the  genial  current  of  the  soul. 

Full  many  a  gem  of  purest  ray  serene 

The  dark  unfathom'd  caves  of  ocean  bear : 

Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen, 

And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air. 

Some  village  Hampden ,  that,  with  dauntless  breast, 
The  little  tyrant  of  his  fields  withstood, 

Some  mute  inglorious  Milton  here  may  rest. 

Some  Cromwell  guiltless  of  his  country's  blood. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  251 


Th'  applause  of  list'ning  senates  to  command, 
The  threats  of  pain  and  ruin  to  despise, 

To  scatter  plenty  o'er  a  smiling  land, 

And  read  their  history  in  a  nation's  eyes, 

Their  lot  forbade :  nor  circumscrib'd  alone 

Their  growing  virtues,  but  their  crimes  confin'd ; 

Forbade  to  wade  through  slaughter  to  a  throne, 
And  shut  the  gates  of  mercy  on  mankind. 

The  struggling  pangs  of  conscious  truth  to  hide. 
To  quench  the  blushes  of  ingenuous  shame. 

Or  heap  the  shrine  of  luxury  and  pride 

With  incense  kindled  at  the  Muse's  flame. 

Far  from  the  madding  crowd's  ignoble  strife. 
Their  sober  wishes  never  leani'd  to  stray  ; 

Along  the  cool  sequester'd  vale  of  life 

They  kept  the  noiseless  tenor  of  their  way. 

Yet  ev'n  these  bones  from  insult  to  protect 

Some  frail  memorial  erected  nigh, 
With  uncouth  rhymes  and  shapeless  sculpture  deck'd, 

Implores  the  passing  tribute  of  a  sigh. 

Their  name,  their  years,  spelt  by  th'  unletter'd  Muse, 
The  place  of  fame  and  elegy  supply : 

And  many  a  holy  text  around  she  strews, 
That  teach  the  rustic  moralLit  to  die. 

For  who,  to  dumb  forgetfulness  a  prey. 

This  pleasing  anxious  being  e'er  resign'd, 

Left  the  warm  precincts  of  the  cheerful  day, 

Nor  cast  one  longing  ling' ring  look  behind? 

On  some  fond  breast  the  parting  soul  relies, 

Some  pious  drops  the  closing  eye  requires; 

E'en  from  the  tomb  the  voice  of  nature  cries. 
E'en  in  our  ashes  live  their  wonted  fires. 

For  thee,  who,  mindful  of  th'  unhonour'd  dead, 
Dost  In  these  lines  their  artleas  tale  relate; 

If  chance,  by  lonely  contemplation  led. 

Some  kindred  spirit  shall  enquire  thy  fate,— 


252  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


Haply  some  hoary-headed  swain  may  say, 

"Oft  have  we  seen  him  at  the  peep  of  dawn 

Brushing  with  hasty  steps  the  dews  away, 

To  meet  the  sun  upon  the  upland  lawn. 

"There  at  the  foot  of  yonder  nodding  beech, 

That  wreaths  its  old  fantastic  roots  so  high, 

His  listless  length  at  noontide  would  he  stretch. 
And  pore  upon  the  brook  that  babbles  by. 

"Hard  by  yon  wood,  now  smiling  as  in  scorn, 

Mutt'ring  his  wayward  fancies  he  would  rove; 

Now  drooping,  woful-wan,  like  one  forlorn, 

Or  crazed  with  care,  or  cross'd  in  hopeless  love. 

"One  morn  I  miss'd  him  on  the  custom'd  hill, 
Along  the  heath,  and  near  his  fav'rite  tree; 

Another  came ;  nor  yet  beside  the  rill. 

Nor  up  the  lawn,  nor  at  the  wood  was  he : 

•'The  next,  with  dirges  due  in  sad  array 

Slow  through  the  church- way  path  we  saw  him  borne : 
Approach  and  read  (for  thou  can'st  read)  the  lay 

Grav'd  on  the  stone  beneath  yon  aged  thorn," 

THE    EPITAPH. 

Here  rests  his  head  upon  the  lap  of  earth 

A  youth,  to  fortune  and  to  fame  unknown : 

Fair  science  frown'd  not  on  his  humble  birth, 
And  melancholy  mark'd  him  for  her  own. 

Large  was  his  bounty,  and  his  soul  sincere. 

Heaven  did  a  recompense  as  largely  send ; 

He  gave  to  mis'ry  (all  he  had)  a  tear, 

He  gained  from  heav'n  ('twas  all  he  wish'd)  a  friend. 

No  farther  seek  his  merits  to  disclose, 

Or  draw  his  frailties  from  their  dread  abode, 

(There  they  alike  in  trembling  hope  repose,) 
The  bosom  of  his  Father  and  his  God. 


THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  253 

THOUGHT  ANALYSIS. 
Written  as  a  Class  Exercise. 

1.  Purpose.  {Category  of  design.)  To  in- 
spire in  the  exalted  a  feeling  of  respect  for  the 
lowly  and  to  induce  them  to  treat  the  poor  with 
more  consideration. 

2.  Means.  (  Category  of  cause  and  effect  un- 
der the  special  form  of  means  and  end.) 

To  accomplish  the  above  object  the  author  pre- 
sents : 

a.  A  picture  inte^ided  to  inspire  a  feeling 
of  solemnity.  The  things  which  tend  to  inspire 
this  feeling  are  : 

(1.)    The  Place.    {Category  of  place.)   A 
grave  yard. 

(2.)    Time.   (  Category  of  time  ^  Evening. 
(3.)  Sotmds  which  possess  one  or  more  of 
the  following  attributes :  (  Category  of  cause  and 
effect  under  the  form  of  means  and  end.) 
{a.)  Low  pitch, 
ib.)  Slow  time, 
(c.)  Regular  movement, 
id.)  Large  volume, 
(e.)  Subdued  force. 
The  sounds  are  : 

(a.)   Tolling  of  the  curfew, 
(b.)  Lowing  of  the  herd. 


254  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

{c.)  Solemn  stillness, 
id.)  Flight  of  the  beetle, 
(e.)   Tinkling  of  the  bell, 
(f)  Hooting  of  the  owl. 
(4.)   Objects  of  sight.  (^Category  of  cause 
and  effect  under  the  form  of  means  and  end.) 

{a.)  Animate  objects  possessing  one  or 
more  of  the  attributes  mentio7ied  under  (j.) 
The  objects  are  : 

(1')    The  ploughman. 
(2')    The  herd, 
{b.)  Inanimate  objects  suggesting  one 
or  more  of  the  following  ideas  : 
(1')  Age. 
(2')  Desolation. 
(3')  Mortality  of  man. 
These  objects  are: 

(1')  Fading  landscape, 
(2')  Ivy  mantled  tower, 
(3')  Rugged  elms, 
(4')    Yew  tree. 
(5')  Mounds. 
b.  A  picture  intended  to  inspire  a  feeling 
of  sympathy,  by  giving  an  ideal  form  of  life, 
(^Category  of  cause  and  effect  under  the  form  of 
means  and  end.) 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  255 

(1.)    The  beautiful  morning. 

(2.)  Singing  of  the  birds. 

(3.)  Sweet  odors. 

(4.)    Crozuing  of  the  cocks. 

(5.)  Echoing  horn. 

(6.)    Cheerful  home. 

(7.)  Busy  house-wife. 

(8.)  Blazing  hearth. 

(9.)  Affectionate  children. 

(10.)  Occupation  : 

{a.)  Harvesti7ig. 

{b.)  Breaking. 

(c.)  Felling  timbers. 
c.  Argurnent.    (  Category  of  cause  and  effect 
under  form  of  means  and  end.) 
(1.)  Mortality  of  all. 
(2.)  None  can  be  called  back  to  life. 
(3.)  Monuments  affect  not  the  dead. 
(4.)  Natural  endowments. 
(5.)  Difference  in  power  may  be  owing  to 
difference  in  circumsta7ices . 

(6.)  Difference  i7i  circumstances  prevents 
doing  evil. 

(7.)  Natural  affection. 
(8.)  All  fear  death. 


256  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

(9.)  Their  opinion  of  us  should  not  affect 
feeling  towards  them. 

(10.)  We  should  feel  and  act  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  would  be  pleasing  in  the  sight 
of  God. 

DERIVATION. 
GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS. 

Principle. — In  the  work  indicated  under  each  of  the  following 
points  the  learner  is  to  put  to  the  utmost  test  all  his  powers  of  observa- 
tion, comparison  and  inference  in  respect  to  both  form  arid  meaning^ 
before  erriploying  the  dictionary,  or  other  extraneous  aids. 

1.  Associate  carefully  each  root  with  its  meaning. 

2.  Give  examples  of  English  words  involving  the  roots. 

3.  State  of  each  word : 

a.  Its  primary  literal  meaning. 

b.  Its  secondary  literal  meaning. 

E.  g.  Defer  meaning  to  put  off,  furnishes  deferer,  one  who 
puts  off;  and  deference,  deferential,  in  which  the  idea  is — yielding 
to  the  wishes  of  another. 

4.  Associate  each  prefix  and  suffix  with  its  meaning. 

5.  Give  examples  of  English   words  involving  prefixes: 
find  words  in  which  the  sufiixes  have  the  meaning  given. 

6.  The  treatment  of  each  word  in  the  appended  list  of  deri- 
vatives (page        )  should  consist  of : 

a.  The  separation  of  the  word  unto  prefix,  root,  and 
sufiix. 

b.  The  statement  of  the  meaning  of  each. 

c.  The  force  of  the  time  element  as  indicated  by  the 
form  of  the  root  or  sufiix. 

d.  The  giving  of : 

(1).  Primary  literal  meaning. 
(2).  Secondary  literal  meaning. 

e.  Statement  of  current  meaning. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  257 

7.  Consider  each  significant  word  in  the  Elegy  : 

a.  As  to  whether  it  is  language  of  the  understanding  or 
language  of  the  imagination,  using  the  form  suggested  under 
*•  Figurative  Language  "  (page  266). 

b.  As  to  its  derivation. 

INCIDENTAL. 

(Fourth,  Fifth  and  Sixth  Years). 

By  the  time  the  pupil  is  able  to  use  the  Third  Reader, 
he  has  obtained  such  facility  in  reading  that  he  may  be- 
gin the  study  of  derived  words.  The  work  may  be 
taken  orally  as  a  general  lesson,  or  incidentally  in  con- 
nection with  jeading  lessons.  The  following  illustra- 
tion will  tend  to  suggest  the  nature  of  the  work  on 
affixes  and  prefixes  during  the  fourth  year.  In  the 
fifth  and  sixth  years,  the  general  plan  would  be  similar, 
the  material,  however,  presenting  more  difficulty. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

(Diminutives). 

It  may  be  that  in  some  reading  lesson  the  word  river 
has  occurred.  During  the  recitation  or  at  another  time, 
as  a  general  lesson,  lead  the  pupils  to  consider  rivers  as 
to  their  size,  and  to  call  that  moving  body  of  water  that 
is  too  small  for  even  small  boats  to  float  upon,  a  little 
river.  Consider  then  the  meaning  of  rivulet.  Write 
the  word  river  at  one  part  of  the  board  and  the  word 
rivulet  in  another  place.     Have  the  children  : 

1.  To  state  the  difference  in  meaning. 

2.  To  observe  and  state  the  difference  in  form. 

3.  To  infer  and  state  the  force  of  let. 

Under  the  word  river  write  the  word  stream.  Obtain 
from  the  children  its  meaning,  and  lead  them  to  infer 
the  word  that  means  a  little  stream.     Write  the  word 

18 


258  THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

Streamlet  under  rivulet.  Deal  in  a  similar  way  with 
brookj  tart,  wave,  cloud.  Let  the  class  give  orally,  and 
then  write  on  their  slates  the  meaning  or  force  of  let, 
i.  e.,  define  it.  In  like  manner  consider  kin,  as  with 
lamb,  pan,  man,  etc. 

At  this  stage  lead  the  children  to  observe  that  in  each 
case  let  and  kin  are  added  or  fixed  to  a  syllable,  and 
then  state  and  have  them  write  "  Let  and  kin  are  affixes, 
meaning  small  or  little.^^  Have  the  sentence  given  orally 
many  times. 

Ask  then  for  two  affixes  meaning  smj^ll.  Write  the 
two  as  the  beginning  of  a  column.  Suggest  others, 
writing  them  in  the  column  as  obtained,  by  asking  the 
name  for  a  little  duck,  a  little  goose,  etc.  Inquire  what 
is  meant  by  lordling,  darling,  etc. — suggesting  if  neces- 
sary that  the  first  means  a  lord  or  person  who  is  little  in 
mind  but  great  in  his  own  thought,  and  that  the  second 
is  a  slight  modification  of  dear  with  the  affix.  Have  the 
pupils  infer  the  meaning  of  nursling.  State  that  a  sack 
or  bag  is  also  termed  a  poke.  Ask  what  those  little  bags 
sewn  in  their  coats,  vests,  trousers,  aprons,  and  dresses 
in  which  they  carry  handkerchiefs,  knives,  marbles,  etc. 
are  called.  In  this  way  obtain  the  word  pock(^e)et. 
From  it  and  floweret  infer  the  meaning  of  et.  In  a  simi- 
lar way  obtain  ock,  from  hillock,  bullock,  etc.  Then  have 
the  list  read.  Ask  the  name  for  such  endings.  Have 
the  definition  repeated,  and  the  force  of  the  affixes 
given.  Leave  the  thought  with  them  that  there  are 
many  other  affixes  with  other  meanings,  and  that  at 
another  time  these  will  be  reconsidered  in  connection 
with  those  as  yet  unknown  ones. 


THE   THEO 


ifr 


OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


259 


SYSTEMATIC. 

Seventh  and  Eighth  Years. 


LMtin, —  Verbs. 


*Ager«,  to  do,  to  perform;  eg,act. 
Amare,  to  love;  amat. 
Aptare,  to  fit  or  join. 
Ardere,  to  burn;  ars. 
Arguere,  to  argue. 
Arare,  to  plough. 
Audire,  to  hear;  audit. 
Augere,  to  increase;  aux,  auct. 
Bibere,  to  drink. 
Cadere,  to  fall;  cas. 
CaedCT-e  to  cut,  to  kill;  caes. 
CaXere,  to  be  warm  or  hot. 
Canderc,  to  glow  with  heat. 
Capere,  to  take;  cep,  capt. 
Csivere,  to  beware;  caut. 
Cedere,  to  yield,  to  go  away;  cess. 
Censere,  to  judge  or  estimate. 
Cernere,  to  separate,  distinguish 

or  discern;  cret. 
Ciere,  to  rouse,  to  call  forth;  cit. 
Clam  are,  to  cry  out,  to  shout; 

clamat. 
Claud  ere  ^  (  claus 

Clodere    V  to  shut,  to  close;  \  clos. 
Cludere    J  i  clus. 

Clinere,  to  incline  or  bend. 
Colere,  to  cultivate;  cult. 
Coquere,  to  cook;  coct. 
Credere,    to    believe;     credu, 

credit. 
Creare,  to  create;  creat. 
Crescere,  to  grow;  cret. 

Currere,  to  run;  curs. 
Debere,  to  owe;  debit. 
Dicore,  to  devote,  to  show;  dicat. 
Dic^re,  to  say;  diet. 


Dividere,  to  divide;  divis. 

Dare,  to  give;  dat. 

Docere,  to  teach;  docu,  doct. 

Dolere,  to  grieve;  to  be  in  pain. 

Ducere,  to  lead;  duct. 

Ire,  to  go;  it. 

Errare,  to  wander;  errat. 

^stimare,  to  value;  aestimat. 

Facere,  to  do  or  make;  fee,  fact 

Fallere,  to  deceive;  fals. 

Fari,  to  speak;  fat. 

Fendere,  to  strike. 

Ferre,  to  carry  or  bear;  lat. 

Fervere,  to  boil;  to  be  hot. 

Fidere,  to  trust. 

Figere,  to  fix  or  fasten;  fix. 

Fingere,  to  form  or  fashion;  fict. 

Flectere,  to  bend;  flex. 

Fligere,  to  beat,  to  dash;  fiict. 

Fluere,  to  flow;  flux. 

Frangere,  to  break;  frag,  fract. 

Fugere,  to  flee;  fugit. 

.Fulgere,  to  shine. 

Fundere,  to  pour  out;  fus. 

Gerere,  to  bear  or  carry  on;  gest. 

Gignere,  to  generate  or  produce; 
genit. 

Gradi,  to  take  steps,  to  walk; 
gress. 

Habere,  to  have;  habit. 

Imperare,  to  command;  imper- 
at. 

Jacere,  to  throw;  jact  or  ject. 

Judicare,  to  judge;  judicat. 

Jungere,  to  join;  junct. 

Jurare,  to  swear;  jurat. 

Legare,  to  send  as  an  embassa- 
dor; legat. 


260  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


Legcre,  to  gather,  to  select,  to  Premere,  to  press;  press. 

read;  lect.  Probare,  to  prove;  probat. 

Levare,  to  raise;  levat.  Pungere,  to  sting;  punct. 

Jjigare,  to  bind;  ligat.  Fntare,  to  think;  putat. 

Linguere,  to  leave;  lict.  Quserere,  to  seek;  qusesit. 

Loqui,  to  speak;  locut.  Hegere,  to  direct,  to  rule;  rect. 

Ludere,  to  play;  lus,  Ren,  to  think,  to  judge;  rat. 

Mandare,   to  commit,   to  give  Rogare,  to  ask;  rogat. 

charge  or  command;  mandat.   Rumpfre?,  to  break;  rupt. 
M.anere,  to  remain;  mans.  Salire,  to  leap  or  spring;  salt. 

M.edere,  to  cure.  Scandere,   to  climb,  to  mount; 

Memini,  to  remember.  scans. 

Mergere,  to  dip,  to  sink;  mers.     Scribere,  to  write;  script. 
Metin,  to  measure,  mens.  Sedere,  to  sit;  sess. 

Mittere,  to  send,  miss.  Seniire  to  perceive;  sens. 

Monere,    to   warn,    to  put  in  Sequi,  to  follow;  secut. 

mind;  monit.  Servare,  to  watch,  to  preserve; 

Monstrare,     to  point  out,     to      servat. 

show;  monstrat  Sistare  or  stare,   to  stand,   to 

Movere,  to  move;  mot.  place,  to  set  up;  stat. 

Mutare,  to  change;  mutat.  Solvere,  to  loose;  solut. 

Nasci,  to  be  born;  nat.  Spicere,  to  look,  to  see;  spect. 

Nocere,  to  hurt,  to  harm;  nocit.  Sperare,  to  hope;  sperat. 
Nectere,  to  tie  or  bind;  nex.        Spirare,  to  breathe;  spirat. 
Noscere,  to  know;  not.  Struere,    to    build,    construct; 

Nunciare,  to  announce;  nunciat.      struct. 
Orm,  to  rise  or  sping  from;  ort.  Sumere,  to  take;  sumpt. 
Orare,  to  pray,  to  ask;  orat.         Tangere  to  touch;  tact. 
PatM,  to  suffer,  to  endure;  pass.  Tendere,  to   stretch,   to  go  to- 
Pellere,  to  drive;  puis.  ,     wards,    to    aim  at;    tens  or 

Pendere,  to  hang;  tent. 

Pendere,  to  weigh,  to  pay  out;    Tenere,  to  hold,  to  keep;  tent. 

pens.  Texere,  to  weave;  text. 

Petere,  to  seek;  petit.  Trahere,  to  draw;  tract. 

Pingere,  to  paint;  pict.  Uti,  to  use;  us. 

Placere,  to  please;  placit.  Ysdere,  to   be  strong;   to  have 

Plaudere,  to  clap,  to  applaud;      force  or  value. 

plans,  Yeriere,  to  turn;  vers. 

Plere,  to  fill;  plet.  Venire,  to  come;  vent. 

Plicare,  to  fold;  plicat.  Videre,  to  see;  vis. 

Plectere,  to    twine    or  weave;  Vincer«  to  conquer;  vict. 

plex.  Vivere,  to  live;  vict. 

Ponere  to  put  or  place;  posit.      Vocare,  to  call;  vocat. 
Portare,  to  carry.  Volvere,to  roll;  volut.. 

Prehendere,  to  seize;  prehens.    Vovere  to  vow;  vot. 


THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 


261 


Nouns. 


Ager,  a  field  ;  agr. 
Angulus,  a  corner ;  angul. 
Anima,   the    life  or  spiritual 

principle ;  anim. 
Animus,  the  inind;  anim. 
Annus,  a  year  ;  ann. 
Arma,  arms,  weapons  ;  arm. 
Ars,  art,  skill ;  art. 
Articulus,  a  joint  or  limb;  arti- 

cul.  ' 

CantuH,  a  song  ;  cant. 
Caput,  the  head;  capit 
Caro,  flesh ;  cam. 
Causa,  a  cause  ;  caus. 
Circus,  a  circle  ;  circ. 
Civis,  a  citizen  ;  civ. 
Classis,  a  class  ;  class. 
Concilium,  an  assembly,  a 

council ;   concili. 
Cor,  the  heart ;  cord. 
Corona,  a  crown  ;  coron. 
Corpus,  a  body  ;  corpor. 
Crux,  a  cross  ;  cruc. 
Culpa,  a  fault ;  culp. 
Cura,  care ;  cur. 
Damnum,  harm,  loss ;  damn. 
Dens,  a  tooth  ;  dent. 
Deus,  God ;  de. 
Divus,  a  god  ;  div. 
Dies,  a  day  ;  di. 
Dominus,  a  master  or  lord  ; 

domin. 
Domus,  a  house,  a  home;  dom. 
Exemplum,  an  example;  ex- 

empl. 
Fama,  a  report;  fam. 
Familia,  a  family  ;   famili. 
Fanum,  a  temple  ;  fan. 
Fomina,  a  woman  ;  femin. 
Filius,  a  son  ;  fili. 
Filia,  a  daughter  ;  fili. 
Filum,  a  thread  ;  fil. 
Finis,  an  end  or  limit ;  fin. 


Flamma,  a  flame ;  flamm. 
Flos,  a  flower  ;  flor. 
Folium,  a  leaf;  foli. 
Forma,  form,  beauty  ;    form. 
Frater,  a  brother  ;  fratr. 
Frigus,  cold  ;  frigor. 
Frons,  the  forehead  ;  front. 
Fumus,  smoke ;  fum. 
Fundus,  a  foundation  ;  fund. 
Granum,  a  grain  of  corn  ;  gran. 
Grex,  a  flock  of  sheep  ;   greg. 
Haeres,an  heir  or  heiress;  haer- 

ed. 
Hospes,  a  host  or  guest;  hospit. 
Hostis,  an  enemy  ;  host. 
Humus,  the  ground;  hum. 
Imago,  an  image  ;  imagin. 
Iter,  a  journey  ;  itiner. 
Jus,  right,  law,  justice;  jur. 
Labor,  labor. 
Latus,  a  side  ;  later. 
Lex,  a  law  ;  leg. 
Liber,  a  book  ;  libr. 
Linum,  flax ;  lin. 
Litera,  a  letter  ;  liter. 
Locus,  a  place  ;   loc. 

Lumen,  V^^^^/lumin. 
Magister,  a  master ;  magistr. 
Manus,  the  hand  ;  man. 
Mare,  the  sea ;  mar. 
Mater,  a  mother  ;  matr. 
Merx,  merchandise ;  mere. 
Minister,  a  servant  or  attend- 
ant; ministr. 
Modus,  a  manner ;  mod. 
Mons,  a  mountain  ;  mont. 
Mors,  death  ;   mort. 
Mos,  custom,  practice  ;  mori 
Munus,  an  office  or  gift;  muner. 
Numerus,  a  number ;   numer. 
Opus,  a  work  ;  oper. 
Pars,  a  part ;  part. 


262 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


Pater,  a  father ;  patr. 
Poena,  punishment ;  poen. 
Pes,  a  foot ;  ped. 
Planta,  a  plant ;   plant. 
Populus,  the  people  ;  popul. 
Signum,  a  sign  or  seal ;  sign. 


Socius,  a  companion  ;    soci. 
Terra,  the  earth  ;  terr. 
Testis,  a  witness ;  test. 
Verbum,  a  word  ;  verb. 
Vulgus,  the  common  people 
vulg. 


Adjectives. 


Altus,  lofty;  alt. 
Ampins,  large;  ampl. 
Brevis,  short;  brev. 
Cavus,  hollow;  cav. 
Centum,  a  hundred;  cent. 
Clarus,  clear,  bright;  clar. 
Crudus,  raw,  unripe;    crud. 
Curvus,     crooked,     winding ; 

curv. 
Decem,  ten. 

Densus,  thick,  close;  dens. 
Dignus,  worthy;  dign. 
Durus,  hard;  dur. 
JEquus,  equal,  just;  sequ. 
Exterus,  outer,  foreign;  exter. 
Felix,  happy;  felic. 
Festus,  joyful;  fest. 
Firmus,  strong;  firm. 
Fortis,  brave,  fort. 
Grandis,  great;  grand. 
Gratus,     pleasing,    agreeable, 

thankful;  grat. 
Gravis,  heavy,  grievous;  grav. 
Lenis,  mild;  len. 
Liber,  free;  liber. 
Longus,  long;  long. 
Magnus,  great;  magn. 

Greek. 

Aer,  the  air.  Chole,  bile,  anger. 
Arche,  the  beginning;  govern-  Christos,  the  Anointed. 

ment.  Chronos,  time. 

Astron,  a  star.  Kosmos,  the  world. 

Autos,  one's  self.  Krites,  a  judge. 

Ballo,  to  cast  or  throw.  Kuklos,  a  circle. 

Kentron,  a  central  point.  Demos,  the  people. 


Major,  greater,  maj. 

Mains,  bad;  mal. 

Mathrus,  ripe;  matur. 

Minor,  less. 

Mirus,  strange,  wonderful;  mir. 

Miser,  wretched;  miser. 

Multus,  much;  mult. 

Novus,  new;  nov. 

Omnis,  all;  omn. 

Par,  equal,  like;  par. 

Planus,  even,  level,  evident; 
plan. 

Proprius,  belonging  to,  pecu- 
liar; propri. 

Eudis,  unpolished,  uncultiva- 
ted; rud. 

Sagus,  wise,  discerning;  sag. 

Sanus,  sound,  healthy;  san. 

Severus,  severe;  sever. 

Similis,  like;  simil. 

Solidus,  solid;  solid. 

Solus,  alone;  sol. 

Ultimus,  last;  ultim. 

Unus,  one;  un. 

Vagus,  wandering;  vag. 

Verus,  true;  ver. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  263 


Doxa,  an  opinion.  Pan,  every;  all. 

Hedra,  a  se.it.  Pathos,     suffering,     affection, 

Ergon,  a  work.  emotion. 

Eu,  well;  rightly.  Petalon,  a  leaf. 

Ge,  the  earth.  Phaino,  to  appear,  to  show. 

Glotta  or  glossa,  the   tongue;  Pharmakon,  a  drug;    a  medi- 

language.  cine. 

Gonia,  an  angle  or  corner.  Phemi,  to  say  or  tell. 

Grapho,  to  write.  Philos,  a  friend  or  lover. 

Gramma,  a  writing.  Phone,  a  sound. 

Helios,  the  sun.  Phrazo,  to  say  or  relate. 

Hudor,  water.  Pnren,  the  mind. 

Idios,  belonging  to  one;  pecu-  Phusis,  nature. 

liar.  Polls,  a  city. 

Lpos,  the  people.  Polus,  much,  many. 
Logos,  a  speech,  account  or  de-  Pur,  fire. 

scription.  Skeptomai,  to  examine;  to  con- 
Math  ema,      knowledge;  that      sider. 

which  is  learned.  '      Schole,  leisure, 

Metron,  a  measure.  Skopeo,  to  observe;  to  watch. 

Monos,  sole;  only.  Sophia,  wisdom. 

Naus,  a  ship.  Spao,  to  draw. 

Neuron,  a  cord,  a  nerve.  Stasis,   a  standing  or  position; 

Nomos,  a  law  or  rule.  a  placing. 

Ode,  an  ode  or  song.  Stenos,  narrow. 

Odos,  a  road  or  way.  Thesis,  a  putting  or  placing. 

Onoma,  a  name.  Theos,  God. 

Optomai,  to  see.  Tome,  the  act  of  cutting. 

Orthos,  erect,  right.  Tonos,  tension;  tone. 

Oxus,  sbarp,  acid.  .     Topos,  a  place. 

Paideia,  education.  Tupos,  a  shape,  figure,  model. 

Prefixes. 

A  (Eng.  or  Sax.),  in,  on,  at.         Apo  or  Ap  (Gr.)  from. 
A  or  ab  (Lat.)  from.  Be  (Eng.)  upon,  over,  about. 

A  or  an  (Gr.)de8titute  of.  Cata  (Gr.)  down,  against. 

Ad  (Lat.)   taking   the  forms  Circum  (Lat.)  around,  about. 

a,  ac,  af,  ag,  al,  an,  ap,  ar,  as,  Con   (Lat.)   with  or  together. 

or  at.)  to.  It  may  assume  the  forms  of 

Am  or  amb   (Lat.)   round  or      co,  cog,  col,  com,  cor. 

about.  Contra  (Lat.)  against. 

Ana.  (Gr.)  throughout ;  up.       De  (Lat.)  from,  down  from. 
Ante  (Lat.)  before.  Dia  (Gr.)  through. 

Anti  or  Ant  (Gr.)  against. 


264  THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


Dis.     (Lat.)    asunder,     apart,  Para  or  Par  (Gr.)  by  the  side 

away,  taking  the  forms  di      of. 

and  dif.  Per  (Lat.)  through. 

E  or  Ex  (Lat.  and  Gr.)  out  or  Peri  (Gr.)  around. 

out  of.     It  sometimes  Post  ( Lat. )  after. 

changes  to  ec  or  ef.  Pre  (Lat.)  before. 

En  or  Em,  See  In.  Preter  (Lat.)  beyond. 

Epi  or  Ep  (Gr.)  upon,  over.  Pro  (Lat.)  for,  forth,  forward. 

for.  It  may  become  por  and  pur. 

Rxtra  (Lat.)  beyond.  Re  or  Red  (Lat.)   back  again, 

Fore,  before.  anew 

Hyper  (Gr.)  above,  beyond.       Retro  (Lat.)  backward. 
Hypo  (Gr.)  under.       '  Se  (Lat.)  aside,  apart. 

In  or  En  (Lat.  and  Gr.)  in,  on.  Sub  or  subter  (Lat.)  under.  It 

or  into.      In  may  become  il,      may  become  sue,   suf,   sug, 

im,  ir  ;  en  may  become  em.        sup,  sus. 
Inter  (Lat.)  between  or  among.  Super  (Lat.)  above,  over,  more 
Sometimes  becomes  enter.  than  enough.  Often  changed 

Intro  (Lat.)  within.  to  sur. 

Meta  or  Met  (Gr.)   after,   be-  Syn   (Gr.)   with,     together.    It 

yond,  from  one  to  another.        may  become  sy,  suf,  sym. 
Mis,  wrong,  erroneous,  defec-  Trans    or    Tra    (Lat.)    over, 

tive.  through,  beyond. 

Non.  (Lat.)  not.  Un  denotes  privation  or  nega- 

Ob  (Lat.)  denotes  opposition,      tion. 

and  may  become  oc,  of,   or  Under, 
op.  With    denotes   opposition    or 

Out,  beyond.  separation. 

Sujffixes. 

Suffixes  have  not  fixed  significations,  as  is  the  case 

with  prefixes.     These  must  be  determined  in  every  case 

by  the  meaning  of  the  word  in  which  the  suffix  is  found. 

In  the  following  list  one  or  more  meanings  are  given 

with  each: 

Ac,  like;  pertaining  to.  An  or  ian,  belonging  to;   one 

Aceous,  having  the  qualities  of.      who. 

Acy,  state  or  condition  of.  Ance  orancy,  the  state  of  being. 

Age,  the  condition  of;  the  do-  Ant,  being  in;  one  who. 

ing  of.  Ar,  belonging  to;   resembling; 

Al,  relating  to;  the  act  of.  one  who. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  265 


Ard,  one  who.  Ism  or  asm,  the  state  of  being; 

Ary,   pertaining  to ;    a    place      an  idiom  of. 

wheie.  Ist,  one  who. 

Ate,   having  the  qualities  of;  Ite,  one  who  is;  one  belonging 

one  who.  to. 

Ble,  that  can  or  may  be.  Ive,  fitted  to. 

Cle,  little.  Ize  or  ise,  to  make  or  render. 

Cule,  minute.  Less,  without. 

Dom,  the  state  or  condition  of.  Let,  little. 
Ee,  one  who  is.  Like,  resembling.  , 

Eer,  one  who  does.  Ling,  denotes  littleness. 

En,  to  make.  Ly,  like;  in  a  manner. 

Ence  or  ency,  the  state  of  be-    Ment,  the  state  of;  the  act  of; 

ing;  the  act  or  quality  of.  that  which 

Ent,  having  the  quality  of;  one  Mony,  the  quality  of. 

who.  Ness,  the  state  of  being;  quali- 

Er,  one  who  does;  more.  ty  or  circumstance  of  being.    • 

Ery,  a  place  where.  Or,  one  who  does. 

Escence,  the  state  of  growing  or  Ory,  fitted  or  designed;  a  place 

becoming.  where. 

Escent,  becoming.  Ose,  abounding  in.  % 

Ess,  denotes  feminine  gender.    Ous,  partaking  of;  having  the 
Ful,  full.  quality  of. 

Hood,  the  condition  of.  Ship,  the  place  or  office  of;  the 

Ic,  like,  having  the  qualities  of.      condition  or  relation  of. 
Ice,  the  quality  of.  Some,  characterized  by. 

Ics,  the  science  of.  Ster,  one  who. 

Id,  having  the  quality  of.  Tude,   the  condition  of ;    the 

He,  pertaining  to;    capable  of      quality  of. 

being.  Ty,  the  condition  or  state  of 

Ine,  pertaining  to;  having  the      being. 

qualities  of.  Ure,  the  act  of. 

Ion,  the  act  or  state  of.  Ward,  in  the  direction  of;  hav- 

Ish,  like;  somewhat.  ing  the  quality  of. 

Y,  the  quality  or  state  of  being. 

In  the  consideration  of  the  succeeding  list  of  words : — 

1.  Determine  with  each  word  the  full  extent  that  can  be 
wrought  out  unaided  by  the  already  acquired  powers. 

2.  Study  it  by  means  of  the  dictionary. 

3.  Consider,  in  the  light  of  the  knowledge  gained  from  the 
dictionary,  whether  the  data  for  mastering  the  word  were  not, 
even  before  the  use  of  the  dictionary,  within  the  scope  of  the 
mind's  experience. 


266 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


Acidulate. 

Master. 

Destroy. 

Exigency. 

Emancipate. 

Tent. 

Inimical. 

Matron. 

Tenor. 

Millenium. 

Remedy. 

Terrier. 

Inert. 

Moderator. 

Protestant. 

Obedient. 

Summon. 

Testament. 

Regicide. 

Tantamount. 

Trait. 

Sc^ald. 

Momentum. 

Extravagance. 

Incendiary. 

Common. 

Invaluable. 

Accent. 

Manoeuver. 

Venture. 

Precept. 

Adore. 

Verse. 

Precipitate. 

Peerless. 

Trivial. 

Accuse. 

Portion. 

Survey. 

City. 

Jupiter. 

Divulge. 

Courage. 

Repent.         ' 

Aeronaut. 

Corpuscle. 

Triple. 

Asterisk. 

Succumb. 

People. 

Hyperbole. 

Proxy. 

Surprise. 

Centre. 

Succor. 

Proper. 

Choler. 

Indite. 

Amputate. 

Anachronism. 

#    Condign. 

Require. 

Cosmogony. 

Disdain. 

Incorrigible. 

Crisis. 

Render. 

Realize. 

Cathedral. 

Circuit. 

Prorogue. 

Energy. 

Iniquity. 

Erudite. 

Geology. 

Pontiff. 

Salmon. 

Stenography. 

Vociferous. 

Serf. 

Heliotrope. 

Suffrage. 

Pursue. 

Catalogue. 

Foundation. 

Obsequious. 

Thermometer. 

Bellicose. 

Signet. 

Psalmody. 

Exhibit. 

Constable. 

Pantomime. 

Reject. 

Interstice. 

Periphrastic. 

Adjust. 

Solder. 

Pyrotechnics. 

Neglect. 

Despicable. 

System. 

Libel. 

Spiritual. 

Tonic'  * 

FIGURATIVE  LANGUAGE. 


^'Figures  of  speech  are  those  forms  of  language  which 
give  to  objects  of  thought  attributes  and  relations  which 
they  do  not  actually  possess,  which  indirectly  suggest 


*  THE  SCHOLAR'S  COMPANION. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  267 

objects  of  thought,    attributes   or   relations  by  giving 
some  related  idea. 


In  each  case  the  sentence  numbered  **  a  "  is  intended  to  ex- 
press a  thought  in  the  language  of  the  understanding,  and  the 
sentence  numbered  "b"  is  intended  to  express  the  same 
thought  in  figurative  language. 

1.  Attributes  which  they  do  not  actually   possess 
are  given  to  objects  of  thought. 

a.  The  child  weeps. 

b.  The  tree  weeps. 

2.  An  object  of  thought  is  suggested  by  an  attri- 
bute. 

a.  Belgium's  capital  had  gathered  there  her  beau- 
tiful women  and  brave  men. 

b.  'Belgium's    capital   had    gathered    there    her 
beauty  and  chivalry.'^ 

3.  An  attribute  suggested  by  an  object. 

a.  He  showed  the  fierceness  of  his  disposition. 

b.  He  showed  the  tiger  of  his  disposition. 

4.  An  object  of  thought  is  suggested  by  giving  its 
time  relation. 

a.  Remember  the  assassination  of  Caesar. 

b.  'Remember  March,  the  ides  of  MarchP 

5.  An  object  of  thought  is  suggested  by  giving  its 
place  relation. 

a.  He  smote  the  people  living  in  the  city. 

b.  He  smote  the  city. 

6.  An  object  of  thought  is  suggested  by  giving  its 
cause. 

a.  We  read  the  works  of  Milton. 
*       b.  We  read  Milton. 


268  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  ^ 

7.  An  object  of  thought  is  suggested  by  giving  its 
effect. 

a.  We  plant  a  tree. 

b.  We  plant  a  shadow. 

8.  An  object  of  thought  is  suggested  by  giving  its 
purpose. 

a.  Men  intending  to  benefit  society  have  founded 
good  institutions. 

b.  Benefit  has  founded  good  institutions. 

9.  Part  is  suggested  by  giving  whole. 

a.  We  are  citizens  of  the  United  States. 

b.  We  are  citizens  of  America. 

10.  Whole  suggested  by  giving  part. 

a.  Give  us  this  day  our  daily  food. 

b.  'Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread.'' 

11.  An  object  of  thought  suggested  by  giving  one 
like  it. 

a.  Go  ye  and  tell  Herod. 

b.  'Go  ye  and  tell  that /ox.' 

12.  An  object  of  thought  is  suggested  by  giving  one 
unlike  it. 

a.  Ye  are  not  the  people  and  wisdom  will  not  die 
with  you. 

b.  'No  doubt  ye  are  the  people  and  wisdom  will 
die  with  you.' 

13.  An  object  of  thought  is  suggested  by  giving  an 
accompaniment  of  it. 

a.  The  choice  of  the  people  governs  this  country. 

b.  The  ballot-box  governs  this  country. 

In  addition  to  the  above  cases,  adjectives  are  trans- 
ferred from  one  object  to   another.     The  objects  whfch 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  269 

allow  such  transfer  sustain  to  each  other  some  of  the 
above  relations.  The  learning  of  the  different  names 
which  rhetorics  apply  to  the  above  forms  of  language 
may  be  deferred  until  quite  late  in  the  pupil's  course 
or  omitted  altogether.  When  he  meets  those  forms  of 
expression  in  his  reading  it  is  not  necessary  that  he 
shall  think  the  names  which  custom  has  applied  to 
them,  but  it  is  important  that  he  shall  see  the  relations 
involved. 

In  reading  the  sentence  "  The  Lord  is  my  shepherd," 
if  he  thinks — 'as  the  shepherd  cares  for  his  sheep  so  the 
Lord  tenderly  cares  for  His  people,'  he  can  very  well 
afford  to  omit  from  his  thinking  the  word  '  metaphor.' 

Indeed  it  may  be  claimed  that  not  to  know  their 
names  is  a  positive  advantage  to  the  young  learners  in 
dealing  with  forms  of  expression.  A  very  vague  per- 
ception of  the  relations  involved  may  suggest  to  him 
the  names  of  the  figures  and  if  half  guessing  he  pro- 
nounces the  name,  that  relieves  him  from  further  re- 
sponsibility and  he  has  not  received  from  the  difficulty 
the  strength  it  was  capable  of  affording  him.  If  on  the 
other  hand  not  knowing  the  name,  he  is  required  to  see 
clearly  and  to  state  in  the  language  of  the  understand- 
ing the  relations  involved  he  soon  acquires  perfect  mas- 
tery over  such  forms  as  well  as  the  power  of  independ- 
ent thinking  in  other  directions. 

Perhaps  no  other  power  of  the  young  mind  needs 
more  restraining  and  directing  than  the  imagination. 

The  understanding  is  the  natural  check  to  the  imag- 
ination. 


270  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

FORM    OF    ANALYSIS. 

The  following  form  of  analysis  has  been  found  use- 
ful: The  tree  weeps.  "Tree"  is  language  of  the  un- 
derstanding because  it  directly  expresses  an  object  of 
thought  by  naming  it.  ''  Weeps  "  is  the  language  of  the 
imagination  because  it  gives  to  the  object  "tree"  an  at- 
tribute which  it  does  not  possess. 

^'' Belgium^ s  capital  had  gathered  there  her  beauty  and 
her  chivalry.^''  "Beauty"  and  "chivalry"  are  language  of 
the  imagination  because  they  indirectly  suggest  ob- 
jects of  thought — beautiful  women  and  brave  men — by 
giving  attributes  of  them. 

"  We  celebrate  the  fourth  of  July.''  "  Fourth  of  July  " 
is  language  of  the  imagination  because  it  indirectly 
suggests  an  object  of  thought — The  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence— by  giving  its  time  relation. 

With  the  slight  modification  necessitated  by  the  dif- 
ferent relations  involved,  this  form  will  apply  to  all  cases 
and  will  require  close  thinking  and  definite  expression."* 


METHOD  IN  WRITING. 


The  most  potent  reason  why  teachers  do  not  train  children  to  write  cor- 
rectly is,  that  they  can  not  write  well  themselves  and  will  not  take  the  trouble 
to  learn.— F.  W.  Parker,  Ta^ks  on  Teaching. 


DESIGN. 


The  design  of  writing  in  the  common  schools  is  to 
gi\e  the  pupil  that  power  over  slope,  height,  and  width 
of  letters,  thickness  and  curvature  of  lines,  and  mode 


*  JOSEPH  CARHART. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  271 

of  union,  as  applied  to  script,  which  shall  make  his 
writing  rapid,  and  at  the  same  time  graceful  and  legible. 
Stated  in  the  order  of  their  importance,  beginning  with 
the  least  important,  the  ends  of  the  subject  of  writing 
are  gracefulness,  facility  and  legibility. 

GRACEFULNESS. 

Gracefulness  in  writing  relates  to  design  and  to  execu- 
tion. It  assumes  legibility  and,  in  so  far  as  it  relates  to 
design,  depends  upon  the  lines  prominently  employed. 

Lines,  as  they  appear  in  writing,  are  of  three  kinds : — 
straight  lines,  arcs  of  one  circle,  arcs  of  more  than  one 
circle.  Gracefulness  in  script  arises  from  the  prominent 
use  of  the  third  kind  of  line.  Analysis  of  script  that 
is  lacking  in  beauty  will  make  it  manifest  that  the  defect 
arises  from  the  general  tendency  of  the  curved  lines  to 
approach  the  straight  line  and  the  circle.  In  so  far  as 
gracefulness  in  script  depends  upon  execution,  it  is 
attained  by  giving  regularity,  smoothness,  and  propor- 
tion to  the  various  lines. 

FACILITY. 

While  rapidity  is  one  of  the  ends  of  the  subject  of 
writing,  it  should  not  be  sought  in  the  early  stages  of 
the  work.  The  prime  end  of  the  subject  in  all  its  stages 
is  legibility ;  and  the  attempt  to  attain  facility  or  rapid- 
ity should  be  deferred  until  the  elements  of  legibility 
and  beauty  of  style  are  effectually  mastered. 

These  features  having  been  attained,  however,  it  then 
becomes  advisable  on  account  of  the  business  relations 
that  the  pupil  is  in  the  future  to  assume,  to  give  him 
the  power  of  ease  and  rapidity  of  execution. 


272  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

The  attainment  of  this  end  will  be  advanced  if  it  is 
understood  that  rapidity  depends  largely  upon  five 
characteristics  of  writing. 

1.  The  round  style. 

2.  The  minimum  of  slope. 

3.  Simple,  as  opposed  to  ornamental. 

4.  Regular  and  uniform,  as  opposed  to  the  irregular 
and  jerking. 

5.  Smooth  and  flowing  rather  than  disjointed  union 
of  the  letters. 

LEGIBILITY. 

Were  legibility  the  sole  end  in  writing,  no  form  other 
than  the  print  characters  would  be  employed,  since  print 
is  the  standard  of  simplicity  and  legibility.  Writing 
having,  however,  the  additional  ends  of  beauty  and 
rapidity,  a  compromise  is  required  in  which  legibility 
shall,  to  some  extent,  be  sacrificed  in  order  to  better- 
attain  the  other  ends,  especially  that  of  rapidity.  The 
result  of  that  compromise  is  script.  The  problem  then 
becomes,  How  shall  the  greatest  degree  of  legibility  in 
the  use  of  script  be  attained  ? 

Legibility  in  script  rests  upon  several  conditions  : 

1.  The  employment  of  the  round  hand. 

2.  The  formation  of  letters  with  the  minimum 
degree  of  slope. 

3.  Simplicity  of  outline. 

4.  Proportion  in  regard  to  the  height  and  width  of 
the  letters,  and  the  thickness  of  the  lines.  If  the  height 
be  too  great  for  the  width,  the  closeness  of  the  letters 
perplexes  the  eye.  If  the  width  be  too  great  for  the 
height,  the  eye  has  farther  to  travel  to  gather  up  the 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  273 

sum  of  the  whole.  In  either  case  distinctness  is  im- 
paired; the  want  of  proportion  in  the  length  of  the 
parts  of  certain  letters  is  a  common  cause  of  indistinct- 
ness; e.  g.,  in  d,  t,  q,  g,  etc.  If  the  lines  or  loops  are 
made  too  long,  they  extend  into  the  writing  above  or 
below,  causing  the  whole  to  assume  a  ta^ngled  appearance. 

In  the  matter  of  thickness,  various  faults  are  com- 
mitted : — 

a.  The  lines  may  be  too  light  for  the  size  of  the 
letter. 

b.  They  may  be  too  thick  for  the  size  of  the  letter, 
which  produces  the  "heavy  "  hand. 

c.  There  may  be  a  strong  and  irregular  contrast 
between  light  and  heavy  in  the  same  line,  which  makes 
a  "jerking"  hand,  the  most  indistinct  of  the  three. 

5.  The  proper  separation  of  words  and  the  proper 
joining  of  characters,  i.e.,  the  formation  of  all  characters 
and  parts  of  characters  that  admit  of  it,  by  one  continu- 
ous motion  of  the  hand. 

MECHANICAL   CONDITIONS. 

Under  mechanical  conditions  may  be  considered  the 
adjustment  of  the  furniture,  the  position  of  the  body 
the  spacing  and  writing  materials. 

ADJUSTMENT  OF  FUBNITURK. 

The  adjustment  of  furniture  should  be  in  regard  to 
the  relation  of  the  parts  to  each  other,  and  of  the  whole 
to  the  age  of  the  pupils. 

The  pupil   when  seated  should    be  perfectly  steady 

19 


274  THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

and  have  complete  command  over  his  materials.  If  the 
seat  be  too  high  and  without  support  for  the  feet,  the 
pupil's  position  must  be  unsteady,  and  his  work  of  the 
same  character ;  if  the  desk  be  too  high  for  the  seat,  he 
will  not  have  control  over  his  arm  in  writing.  The  edge 
of  the  desk  should  be  on  a  level  with  his  elbow  when 
he  is  seated;  the  top  of  the  desk  should  be  sloped  but 
slightly,  and  should  be  broad  enough  to  prevent  the 
copy-book  from  folding  over  its  outer  edge.  The  desks 
should  be  arranged  so  as  to  allow  the  pupils  to  observe 
the  teacher's  illustrations  on  the  board  without  chang- 
ing their  position,  and  so  that  the  light  shall  fall  on 
them  from  the  pupil's  left.  A  moderate  front  light  is 
the  next  best. 


The  posture  of  the  pupil  should  be  natural  and  easy ; 
he  should  therefore  sit  upright  at  the  desk,  or  nearly  so, 
not  leaning  his  breast  on  the  edge  of  it,  but  turning  the 
left  side  slightly  toward  it,  steadying  the  body  by  rest- 
ing the  lower  part  of  the  left  arm  on  the  desk,  and  hav- 
ing his  right  arm  free  to- support  its  own  weight  on  the 
muscles  of  the  forearm  and  the  third  and  fourth  fingers. 
If  he  is  allowed  to  bend  forward  or  to  twist  his  posture 
in  any  way,  his  point  of  view  is  such  as  to  prevent  him 
from  judging  of  the  qualities  of  the  work  he  is  perform- 
ing. The  posture  should  be  attended  to  very  carefully, 
at  the  outset,  when  it  is  as  easy  for  the  pupil  to  adopt 
the  right  one  as  the  wrong ;  a  bad  habit  will  become 
very  difficult  to  correct. 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  275 

MATERIALS. 

The  materials  used  in  writing  should  be  good  and 
kept  in  good  order.  The  teacher  should  have  very 
explicit  arrangements  to  secure  their  proper  keeping. 
To  prevent  copy-books  from  being  ill  Used,  they  should 
be  delivered  to  and  taken  from  the  pupils  at  the  begin- 
ning and  close  of  each  lesson.  By  a  very  simple  ar- 
rangement, the  teacher  may  secure  that  each  pupil  shall 
have  his  own  pen  and  pen-wiper  as  well  as  his  own 
copy-book.  Such  arrangements  should  be  attended  to 
both  for  economy  and  for  moral  considerations.  Finally, 
the  pupil  should  be  taught  to  use  his  materials  properly ; 
e.  g.,  to  hold  the  pen  lightly  yet  steadily  between  the 
first  and  second  fingers  at  a  certain  distance  from  the 
point  of  the  pen,  directed  toward  the  shoulder,  but  so 
that  the  point  shall  fall  squarely  upon  the  copy,  the 
fingers  which  hold  it  being  neither  too  stiflf  nor  too 
much  bent,  the  others  quite  at  rest,  and  the  hand  as  a 
whole  not  turned  too  much  upon  its  edge;  to  have  his 
copy-book  squarely  before  him,  neither  too  near  nor 
too  far  from  him,  somewhat  toward  the  right  and 
steadied  by  the  left  hand." 

BASIS,    I,  E.,    PSYCHICAL  CONDITION, 

The  basis,  or  psychical  condition  for  writing,  is  the 
knowledge  and  power  gained  through  elementary  draw- 
ing. The  perception  of  form  requires  cultivation  like 
any  other  exercise  of  the  senses.  The  eye  cannot  appre- 
ciate an  intricate  form,  if  it  has  not  been  exercised  upon 
a  succession  of  simpler  forms  leading  up  to  it.      The 


276  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

pupil  should  therefore  bring  to  his  writing  an  educated 
eye.  The  forms  he  is  called  on  to  imitate  are  complex ; 
the  simplest  of  them  is  so  when  observed  for  the  first 
time.  If  he  has  not  been  taught  to  observe  accurately 
he  cannot  be  expected  to  imitate  accurately.  He  should 
know  what  a  straiojht  line  is  in  its  different  positions  of 
vertical,  horizontal,  and  oblique ;  he  should  recognize 
equality  and  difference  of  lengths,  widths,  and  thick- 
nesses, and  he  should  be  acquainted  with  the  simpler 
curves,  and  the  simpler  combinations  of  curves  w4th 
straight  lines.  Without  such  an  experience  of  form  he 
can  make  but  slow  progress  in  writing ;  if  he  does  not 
bring  it  with  him  to  this  art,  he  must  work  it  out  for 
himself  in  his  first  attempts,  but  his  advancement  will 
be  of  necessity  slow  on  this  account.  Writing  should  be 
based  on  drawing ;  it  is  a  species  of  drawing,  and  any 
instruction  in  drawing,  therefore,  which  the  pupil  re- 
ceives may  be  expected  to  bear  fruit  in  the  improve- 
ment of  his  writing.  When  the  eye  is  educated  to  observe, 
and  the  hand  to  execute  correct  and  graceful  forms  of  objects 
in  general,  the  taste  for  form  is  refined;  and  it  cannot  but 
happen  that  the  culture  thus  given  will  show  itself  in 
any  special  branch  of  instruction  in  form. 


The  three  main  principles  to  be  observed  in  writing 
are: — 

1.  Writing  should  be  acquired,  to  a  degree,  incident- 
ally, in  connection  with  the  endeavor  to  express  thought. 

2.  The  child  should  not  be  left  to  his  individual 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  277 

inclination,  but  should  acquire  from  the  very  first  that 
style  of  writing  which  has  been  settled  upon  as  the 
standard. 

3.  The  power  of  forming  smooth,  continuous  lines 
should  be  acquired. 

These  principles  indicate  three  corresponding  stages. 

1.  That  stage  beginning  after  a  short  period  of  prac- 
tice in  drawing,  and  in  printing  words,  in  which  the 
child  gives  expression  in  script  to  his  thoughts,  in  read- 
ing, spelling,  and  in  various  other  lessons.  This  kind 
of  work  continues  throughout  the  school  course.  In 
this  stage  capital  letters  are  used  whenever  necessary. 

2.  That  stage  in  which  the  child  is  trained  to 
thoroughly  master  the  form  of  each  letter.  This  and 
the  first  stage  progress  hand  in  hand,  l^he  first  stage 
furnishing  the  application,  and  giving  the  power  to 
combine  letters  into  words  and  sentences,  while  the 
second  is  conferring  the  accurate  mastery  of  the  accept- 
ed form  of  each  letter.  Each  letter  should  he  dwelt  upon 
until  it  is  thoroughly  mastered. 

In  teaching  the  small  letters,  which  are  taken  up  be- 
fore the  capitals  for  the  obvious  reason  of  their  greater 
simplicity  and  more  general  use,  opinions  differ  as  to 
the  order,  some  beginning  with  the  letter  %  some  with  o, 
etc. 

The  natural  order  would  seem  to  be  to  begin  with  the 
straight  line  combined  with  the  curve,  as  in  i,  and  t ; 
then  the  complete  curve  as  in  o  ;  then  the  combination 
of  the  straight  line  with  the  loop,  as  in  j.  The  letters 
should  be  taken  in  the  order  of  their  simplicity  as  com- 


278  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

posed  of  these  elements,  so  that  letters  of  similar  forma- 
tion will  occur  together.  The  few  exceptional  forms 
should  be  taken  last.  When  the  pupil  has  advanced  to 
the  writing  of  words,  the  capital  letters  should  be  gradu- 
ally introduced,  and  in  the  same  spirit  of  teaching  as 
the  small  letters. 

3.  That  stage  in  which  the  pupil  is  trained  to  the 
proper  movement.  This  begins  at  the  stage  of  the  use 
of  the  pen  and  ink,  about  the  beginning  of  the  third 
year. 

Position,  movement,  etc.,  in  application  in  order  not 
to  negate,  but  to  supplement  this  stage,  should  be  the 
same  as  in  the  practice  in  this  stage. 

ADHERENCE  TO  COPY. 

Experience  shows  that  frequently  the  pupils  do  not 
imitate  the  copy,  or  if  they  do  so  at  all,  only  for  the  first 
few  lines,  and  as  they  descend  the  page  they  gradually 
lose  sight  of  the  model,  and  imitate  either  their  impres- 
sion of  it,  or  their  own  writing. 

There  are  three  things  that  assist  in  preventing  this: — 

1.  Copy-books  with  from  four  to  six  lines. 

2.  A  sliding  copy. 

3.  Careful  oversight  of  the  work  of  each  line,  and 
correction  of  all  errors  that  occur,  always  with  direct  ref- 
erence to  the  copy. 


METHOD  IN  SPELLING. 


A  diagram  of  the  work  in  spelling  may  be  given  as 
follows :— 


THE    THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


279 


1.  Design. 

2.  Principles 


a.  Familiarity  of  the  eye  with  the  form. 

b.  Association  of  form  and  meaning. 

c.  Mainly  written  work, 
[d.  From  simple  to  complex. 

a.  Copy. 

Spelling  \  b.  Dictation. 

3.  Stages.      i 

c.  Application. 

d.  Analysis. 

4.  Syllabication. 

5.  Grouping. 

6.  Rules. 

The  iiltimate  design  in  learning  to  spell  is  to  gain  the 
power  to  write  words  correctly  when  expressing  one's  thought. 
The  'principles  are  four : 

1.  Spelling  deals  with  the  forms  of  words,  and  the 
eye  of  the  pupil  should  therefore  be  made  familiar  with 
the  forms  by  repeated  observation  before  he  is  required 
to  reproduce  them  in  writing. 

2.  In  teaching  spelling,  the  principle  that  all  instruc- 
tion in  the  forms  of  language  should  be  based  upon  a 
comprehension  of  the  meaning,  should  be  observed,  on 
the  ground  that  the  sense  of  a  word  or  passage  is  a  stronger 
and  more  interesting  bond  of  association  than  the  appear- 
ance or  sound. 

3.  Since  the  pupil  learns  the  spelling  of  words  in 
order  that  he  may  write  them,  the  instruction  should  be 


280  THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

mainly  through  the  art  to  which  spelling  is  applied  in 
after  life,  and  only  subordinately  through  oral  work. 

4.  Instruction  should  proceed  from  the  simple  to 
the  complex. 

In  the  light  of  these  principles  the  stages  in  spelling 
are  four. 

1.  Copy-work,  the  simplest  form  of  spelling. 

2.  The  reproduction,  in  dictation  exercises,  of  words 
previously  learned,  a  more  difficult  form  of  spelling. 

3.  The  spelling  of  the  necessary  words  when  the  thought 
is  jioixd  upon  the  idea  which  is  being  expressed,  a  still  more 
difficult  work. 

4.  The  analysis  of  difficult  combinations  with  a  state- 
ment  of  the  reasons  for  their  difficulty,  a  work  the  most 
complex  of  the  four  kinds. 

A  pupil  should  be  required  to  copy  accurately  and 
readily  before  he  is  given  the  more  difficult  work  of 
reproducing  from  memory.  "That  which  we  know 
thoroughly,''''  was  said  by  Jacotot,  "  contains  the  explan- 
ation of  the  unknown."     "The  end  is  in  the  beginning." 

Success  in  teaching  spelling  depends  upon  thorough- 
ness. It  is  not  the  amount  but  the  manner  of  doing  it. 
The  vague  forms  are  to  be  made  perfectly  distinct  forms 
to  the  eye  by  writing  before  passing  to  others. 

To  develop  power  to  reproduce  from  memory  :  After 
a  word  has  been  copied  from  the  board,  erase  it,  and 
have  it  reproduced  from  memory.  Do  the  same  with 
two  words,  three,  a  short  sentence,  etc.  Regulate  the 
work  by  the  pupil's  power  to  do  it  accurately.  Train 
him  to  do  exactly  what  he  is  asked  to  do. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  281 

When  he  can  copy  and  reproduce  readily  and  accurately^ 
he  is  prepared  for  the  spelling  of  words  that  are  used  to 
express  his  original  thought,  i.  e.,  the  words  used  in 
composition. 

During  the  time  the  pupil  is  acquiring  facility  in 
copying  and  reproducing,  attention  should  be  given  to 
developing  his  powers  of  observation  and  description  by 
lessons  on  color,  form,  animals,  etc.,  and  by  inducing 
him  to  talk  freely  on  all  subjects  that  come  within  the 
range  of  his  observation. 

After  a  period  of  using  words  in  the  expression  of 
original  thought,  the  pupil  is  prepared  for  the  fourth 
stage — the  stage  of  difficult  combinations. 

The  difficulty  of  English  spelling  arises  from  the  vari- 
ety of  combinations  employed  to  represent  the  elementary 
sounds.  For  example,  the  short  sound  of  e  may  be  re- 
presented in  eleven  different  ways,  as  is  shown  by  the 
words  web,  head,  again,  aesthetics,  any,  nonpareil,  leop- 
ard, bury,  friend,  guess,  says. 

This  difficulty  is  to  be  overcome  by — 

1.  Concentrating  the  attention  upon  only  such  words 
as  involve  difficult  combinations. 

2.  Mastering  tables  of  equivalents  for  elementary 
sounds.     For  example — 

The  name  sound  of  a  is  represented  in  twelve  ways: 
In  many  words  by  a,  as  ale;  by  ai,  as  ail,  and  by  ay, 
as  bay.     In  a  few  words  by   ey,  as  they;  ei.  as  veil;  ea, 
as  break;  ua,  as  guage ;  ao,  as  gaol ;  aa,  as  Aaron  ;  e  and 
ee,  as  melee;  aye,  (meaning  ever.) 

3.  Analysis  ivith  open  hooky  in  order  that  both  the  eye 
and  the  ear  may  be  addressed.     For  example,  the  word 


282  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

police.  The  pupil  pronounces  and  spells  the  word  from 
the  book,  thus:  "Po-lice,  police;  it  is  a  difficult  word 
because  the  name  sound  of  e  is  represented  by  i,  and 
not  by  one  of  the  more  frequent  modes — e,  ea,  ee,  ei,  ie. 
There  are  twelve  ways  to  represent  this  sound.  The 
word  is  more  difficult  to  spell,  because  the  sound  of  s  is 
represented  by  ce." 

The  first  stage  occupies  the  first  year;  the  second,  the 
second  year;  the  third,  from  the  beginning  of  the  third 
year  to  the  end  of  the  seventh  year ;  and  the  fourth,  the 
eighth  year. 

According  to  to  the  principle  of  Comenius,  however, 
that  '  nature  does  nothing  by  leaps,^  the  work  of  any  given 
stage  appears  in  a  subordinate  degree  in  the  preceding 
stage;  there  is  also  combination  as  the  pupil  passes 
from  stage  to  stage. 

Correct  spelling  requires  not  only  a  proper  order  of 
letters  in  a  word,  but  a  proper  divimoa  of  syllables.  The 
practice  of  spelling  by  syllable  should  therefore  be  fol- 
lowed ;  not  only  will  it  cost  no  additional  trouble,  but  it 
will  most  materially  diminish  the  difficulties  of  spell- 
ing, since  errors  are  most  frequently  caused  by  the  pupil 
falling  into  confusion  from  the  length  of  the  words, 
which  difficulty  this  practice  would  prevent.  The  most 
expeditious  and  effective  way  of  spelling  by  syllables  is 
simply  to  require  a  slight  pause  at  the  end  of  each. 

In  the  grouping  of  words  for  spelling,  the  main  classi- 
fications should  be  three : — 

1.  A  grouping  of  words  that  present  difficult  combin- 
ations for  elementary  sounds. 

2.  A  grouping  of  words  that  have  the  same  pronun- 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  283 

cialion  as  certain  other  words,  but  a  different  spelling  and 
meaning. 

3.  A  grouping  of  words  that  have  tioo  or  more  pro- 
nunciations and  meanings. 

In  dealing  with  words  of  the  second  class,  the  pupil 
should  be  required  to  spell  and  define  the  other  words 
having  the  same  pronunciation. 

In  considering  the  words  of  the  third  class,  the  pupil 
should  give  the  other  pronunciations  and  meanings. 

Other  bases  of  classification  also  may  be  employed  to 
give  additional  interest  and  profit  to  the  work.  For 
example,  the  pupils  may  be  required  to  group  and  spell 
words  that  denote  articles  of  food,  drink,  clothing  and 
furniture;  articles  used  in  writing,  building,  traveling, 
etc.;  the  name  of  qualities  belonging  to  any  object ;  the 
words  which  are  formed  from  one  root ;  the  names  of 
individuals  and  species  comprehended  under  one  genus. 
This  exercise  may  obviously  be  framed  to  suit  any  stage 
of  advancenl^nt,  considering  the  various  principles  of 
classification  which  may  be  followed,  viz.,  the  forms  of 
words,  their  meanings,  their  derivation,  and  their  logi- 
cal relation ;  and  it  is  valuable  not  only  for  the  practice 
in  spelling  which  it  affords,  but.  for  what  it  teaches  of 
the  use  of  words,  and  for  the  mental  exercise  implied  in 
the  classification.  It  is  equally  suited  for  writing  and 
for  oral  instruction. 

In  regard  to  rules  oj  spelling^  it  is  to  be  held  in  mind 
that  spelling  is  a  habit  of  the  eye  and  ear,  and  not  of 
rule  or  reason.  Rules  have,  however,  their  place  in 
spelling  work,  but  it  is  a  subordinate  and  concluding 


284  THE    THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

one,  as  the  subject  of  spelling  should  be  substantially 
mastered  before  the  pupils  enter  upon  a  consideration 
of  rules.  The  rules  learned  should  be  those  that  are 
most  general  in  their  application,  and  least  encumbered 
with  exceptions,  and  they  should  be  the  outgrowth  of  obser- 
vation, comparison  and  inference. 

Incidental  spelling  naturally  and  necessarily  appears 
at  all  stages  of  school  work.  It  has  been  correctly  said 
that  all  lessons  are  language  lessons ;  for  the  words  used 
in  them  must  be  made  familiar  to  the  class  both  in  mean- 
ing and  form.  Thus  the  object-lesson  gives  opportunity 
for  spelling  the  names  of  common  objects,  qualities  and 
actions;  the  form  and  color  lessons,  the  names  and  qual- 
ities of  commonly  occurring  forms  and  colors ;  the  lesson 
on  number,  the  names  of  the  numbers,  cardinal  and 
ordinal ;  and  reading  and  general  lessons,  the  names  of 
important  places  and  persons,  in  addition  to  many  of 
those  already  enumerated. 

Where  these  names  do  not  occur  to  th^  class  for  the 
first  time,  the  spelling  of  them  may  be  asked  for  at  once ; 
when  they  are  new,  they  should  be  presented  on  the 
blackboard,  that  the  class  may  observe  their  forms 
before  spelling  them  from  memory. 

Incidental  spelling  is  a  very  profitable  exercise,  from 
the  strict  connection  which  it  maintains  between  the 
spelling  of  words  and  their  meanings.  It  is  to  be,  how- 
ever, only  incidental. 


THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  285 


METHOD  IN  NUMBER. 


DEFINITION. 


Number  has  been  said  to  be  the  limitation  of  objects 
by  ones.  That  is,  by  the  idea  one,  objects,  either  men- 
tal or  material,  may  be  limited,  just  as  material  things 
are  limited  by  the  ideas  red,  hard,  blue,  rough,  etc. 

Thus, — objects  of  various  colors  and  qualities  may  be 
placed  upon  a  table,  and  the  requests  be  made :  Show 
me  the  red  objects ;  point  out  the  things  that  are  hard ; 
bring  to  the  desk  all  the  blue  things  that  you  see;  which 
of  the  objects  upon  the  table  are  rough  ?  etc. 

In  like  manner,  the  objects  being  variously  arranged, 
it  may  be  said :  Show  me  one  ball :  all  the  one-cubes ; 
point  out  all  the  two-spheres  ;  take  in  your  hand  a  three- 
prisms,  etc.  It  is  thus  evident  that  objects  are  as  defin- 
itely limited  by  the  idea  one,  as  by  the  idea  red.  The 
psychological  definition  of  number  is — "  Number  is  the 
limitation  of  things  by  ones."  But  the  things  them- 
selves are  not  units  or  numbers,  though  frequently  spoken 
of  as  such,  especially  in  the  early  stages  of  the  work. 

WHAT  CAN  BS  DONE  WITH  A  NUMBER. 

Comenius  has  said  that  we  learn  to  do  things  by  doing 
them.  The  truth  of  this  being  granted,  it  becomes  ap- 
parent that  the  teacher  should  answer  the  question : 
What  can  be  done  with  a  number? 

Experiments  show  that  all  that  can  be  done  with  a 
number  is : 

To  separate  it  into  unequal  numbers. 

To  separate  it  into  equal  numbers  or  parts. 


286  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

To  combine  it  with  a  number  equal  to  it. 
To  combine  it  with  a  number  unequal  to  it. 

WHAT  CAN  BE  KNOWN  OF  A  NUMBER. 

The  importance  of  definitely  determining  what  can  be 
known  of  a  number  before  beginning  to  teach  number, 
can  scarcely  be  overestimated.  It  gives  definiteness  to 
all  the  work  following. 

Of  any  number,  as  6  for  example,  may  be  known : — 

1.  The  number  as  a  whole. 

2.  The  relations  in  the  number. 

a.  Any  two  unequal  numbers  that  make  the  num- 
ber, as  required  by  the  following  problems : — 

If  a  boy  has  five  marbles  and  finds  one  more,  how 
many  has  he? 

If  the  flour  for  a  family  costs  two  dollars  a  month, 
and  the  meat  four  dollars,  what  is  the  cost  of  both  for  a 
month  ? 

h.  Any  two  equal  numbers  that  make  the  num- 
ber, as  required  by  the  following  problem : — 

A  man  earns  three  dollars  in  one  day,  and  three  dol- 
lars the  next  day ;  how  many  dollars  does  he  earn  in 
the  two  days  ? 

c.  Any  two  unequal  numbers  into  which  the 
number  may  be  separated ;  as  required  by  the  following 
problems : — 

A  boy  has  six  apples  and  eats  one ;  how  many  has  he 
remaining  ? 

A  lady  spends  four  of  her  six  dollars  for  a  hat ;  how 
many  dollars  has  she  left  ? 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  287 

d.  Any  two  equal  numbers  into  which  the  num- 
ber may  be  separated ;  as  required  in  the  following 
problem  : — 

A  merchant  has  six  yards  of  ribbon  and  sells  three ; 
how  many  remain  ? 

e.  The  number  of  equal  numbers  that  make  the 
number ;  as  required  by  the  following  problems : — 

A  man  gives  one  apple  to  each  of  six  boys;  how  many 
apples  does  he  give  ? 

A  boy  leaves  two  pints  of  milk  at  each  of  three  houses ; 
how  many  pints  does  he  leave  ? 

/.  The  number  of  equal  numbers  that  are  in  the 
number ;  as  required  by  the  following  problems : — 

A  mail  has  six  pints  of  vinegar;  how  many  quarts 
has  he  ? 

A  grocer  wishes  to  give  to  poor  families  six  bushels  of 
potatoes,  one  to  each  family  ;  to  how  many  families  can 
he  give  ? 

g.  The  equal  parts  of  a  number;  as  required  by 
the  following  problems : — 

A  miller  divides  six  barrels  of  flour  equally  among 
three  families;  how  many  barrels  does  each  family  re- 
ceive ? 

A  stationer  distributes  six  pencils  equally  among  six 
boys :  how  many  pencils  does  each  receive  ? 

A  druggist  has  six  ounces  of  quinine  and  sells  one- 
half  of  what  he  has  to  another  druggist ;  each  has  then 
how  many  ounces  ? 

A  boy  havii\g  one  apple  divides  it  equally  among  five 
other  boys  and  himself;  what  part  does  each  receive? 


288  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

PURPOSE. 

To  present  any  subject  well,  the  teacher  must  be  able 
to  strike  the  cleavage  idea. 
In  number  this  is  two-fold  : — 

1.  Number,  in  the  stage  of  perception,  may  be 
viewed  as  an  attribute  or  quality  of  things. 

2.  Addition,  subtraction,  multiplication  and  divis- 
ion are  not  properly  the  fundamental  processes  of  arith- 
metic ;  they  are  the  only  processes,  and  are  all  involved 
in  addition. 

Percentage,  Compound  Numbers,  Ratio,  Proportion, 
Cube  Root,  etc.,  are  merely  kinds  of  addition,  subtrac- 
tion, multiplication  or  division,  in  a  new  garb,  and  there 
should  be  clearly  shown  : 

a.  Their  essential  nature. 

b.  Their  distinctive  features. 

c.  The  relation  of  the  new  terms  to  the  old  ones. 

DEFECTS  IN  PRESENTATION. 

The  fundamental  defect  in  dealing  with  arithmetic  is 
that  expression  is  treated  instead  of  number.  Symbol  is 
taught  instead  of  substance.  Arithmetic  is  made  "  the 
science  of  figures  and  the  art  of  memorizing  them  and 
the  rules  for  manipulating  them." 

This  manifests  itself  in  various  ways : — 

1.  In  the  failure  to  teach  the  ideas  and  oral  terms  of 
numbers  for  a  considerable  tim£  before  beginning  the  wofk 
on  written  symbols.  In  reading,  the  child  has  been  deal- 
ing with  ideas  and  oral  terms  for  six  or  more  years  be- 
fore he  begins  work  upon  the  written  word. 

The  reast»n  that  a  year  or  more  is  not  given  to  the 


THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  289 

study  of  real  number,  or  numbered  things  and  oral 
terms,  before  commencing  the  work  upon  figures,  is  be- 
cause ^^«res  are  ccmsidered  to  he  the  real  subject  in  number 
and  arithmetic.  Being  such,  the  aim  is  to  begin  to  deal 
with  them  as  soon  as  possible,  and  if  numbered  things 
are  used  at  all,  it  is  merely  for  the  purpose  of  explaining 
figures. 

2.  In  dealing  with  large  numbers  (in  figures)  during 
the  first  three  years.  This  would  be  impossible  if  real 
numbers,  i.  e.,  numbered  objects,  (actually  or  in  imagina- 
tion) were  dealt  with.  If  the  pupil  were  to  thoroughly 
master,  during  the  first  three  years,  real  numbers  to  one 
hundred,  with  their  relations  as  whole  numbers,  frac- 
tions, percentage,  and  in  tables,  together  with  the  ap- 
propriate symbols,  he  would  be  vastly  better  prepared 
to  encounter  the  actual  affiiirs  of  life  if  deprived  of 
school  advantages  at  the  end  of  the  third  year,  than  if 
he  were  trained  to  manipulate  figures  by  rule  to  hun- 
dreds of  millions. 

3.  In  counting  higher  than  numbers  are  learned. 
Sometimes,   directions  for  the  first  year's   work   are 

somewhat  as  follows : 

"  Take  numbers  to  20.  Count  to  100.  Roman  num- 
bers to  L." 

This  is  manifestly  work  with  expression.  Counting 
and  work  with  Roman  numerals  should  keep  strict 
pace  with  the  mastery  of  numbers.  If  in  the  second 
year  real  numbers  are  studied,  as  suggested  elsewhere, 
to  twenty,  counting  and  Roman  numeral  ivork  shmdd  ex- 
tend to  twenty  and  no  further.  If  it  goes  beyond  that  it 
becomes  work  with  mere  words.     In  counting  the  word 


290 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


five  names  orie,  the  fifth   one.     In  number,  the  word 
five  means  ^-ye  ones. 

4.  In  the  teaching  of  the  various  topics  as  isolated. 

This  is  to  teach  the  various  stages  and  processes  of 
number  in  such  a  manner  that  the  relation  of  one  to 
the  other  is  not  shown.  For  example,  notation  is  pre- 
sented as  an  isolated  subject,  throughout  the  range  of 
small  and  large  numbers.  This  is  followed  by  a  con- 
sideration of  numeration  in  the  same  manner,  and  then 
addition,  etc.  Such  work  arises  in  great  measure  from 
teaching  expression  instead  of  number  itself 

If  real  number,  or  numbered  things  are  considered  it 
will  appear  that  in  any  one  process  the  three  others  are 
implied,  and  that  a  knowledge  of  number  is  a  know- 
ledge of  fractions  and  of  percentage.  Thus  one  subject, 
if  presented  in  its  natural  relations  is  the  interpretation 
of  others. 

In  the  following  it  will  be  seen  that  all  the  processes, 
whole  numbers,  fractions,  and  percentage  are  involved 
in  relations  that  are  mutually  interpreting: 


1  sq.  inch 

K 
25  per  cent. 

Compare  one  sq.  in.,  one-fourth,  and  25  per  cent,  with 
the  whole. 

Addition. — One  sq.  in.  and  three  sq.  in.  are  how  many 
sq.  in.  ?  etc. 

One-fourth,  and  three-fourths  are  how  many  fourths? 
etc. 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  291 

Twenty-five  per  cent,  and  three  twenty-five  per  cents, 
are  how  many  per  cent.  ?  etc. 

Multiplication. — Four  one  sq.  in.  are  how  many  sq. 
in.?  etc. 

Four  one-fourths  are  how  many  one-fourths?  etc. 

Four  twenty-five  per  cents,  are  how  many  per  cent.? 
etc. 

Subtraction. — Four  sq.  in.  less  one  sq.  in.,  are  how 
many  sq.  in.?  etc. 

Four-fourths  less  one-fourth  are  how  many  fourths  ? 
etc. 

One  whole,  less  twenty-five  per  cent,  are  how  many 
per  cent.  ?  etc. 

Division.  (First  phase — finding  the  number  of  equal 
parts  or  numbers  in  a  number.)  In  four  sq.  in.,  there 
are  how  many  one  sq.  in.?     How  many  two  sq.  in.?  etc. 

In  four  fourths  there  are  how  many  one- fourths? 
How  many  two-fourths  ?  etc. 

In  one  whole,  or  one  hundred  per  cent.,  there  are 
how  many  twenty-five  per  cents.  ?  How  many  fifty  per 
cents.?  etc. 

Division.  (Second,  phase — finding  the  size  or  ammint 
of  one  of  the  equal  parts.)  One-fourth  of  four  sq.  in. 
are  how  many  sq.  in.  ?  etc. 

One-fourth  of  four-fourths  are  how  many  fourths? 
etc.  Twenty-five  per  cent,  of  one  hundred  per  cent. 
are  how  many  per  cent.  ?  etc. 

Facte  that  may  be  seen  in  the  geometrical  figure. 

One-half  of  one^half  of  four  sq.  in.  is  what  part  of 
three  sq.  in.  ? 

What  part  of  three-fourths  of  four  sq.  in.  is  one-half 
of  four  sq.  in.  ? 


292  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

Fifty  per  cent,  of  fifty  per  cent,  of  one  hundred  per 
cent,  is  what  part  of  seventy-five  per  cent. 

What  part  of  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  one  hundred 
per  cent,  is  one-half  of  four-fourths  ? 

Twenty-five  per  cent,  is  what  per  cent,  of  seventy-five 
per  cent,  of  four  sq.  in.  ?  etc. 

5.  In  the  failure  to  'picture  out''  to  the  minds  of  the 
pupils  the  conditions  of  the  problems.  It  is  no  absolute 
proof  of  the  pupil's  comprehension  of  the  relations  in  a 
problem,  that  he  is  able  to  give  the  process  and  result 
in  words  or  figures.  In  beginning  new  work,  whether 
in  primary  or  advanced  stages,  the  relations  should  be 
shown  by  numbered  things,  or  by  illustration.*  This 
should  be  true  in  all  primary  work  (employing  either 
the  observation  or  imagination)  where  development  by 
thinking  concerning  things  and  their  relations  is  the  prin- 
cipal idea. 

Consider  for  example  the  following  problems : 

If  one  orange  costs  three  cents,  what  will  five  oranges 
cost?     (Primary  work). 

A  man  left  f  of  his  estate  to  his  elder  son,  -f  of  the 
remainder  to  his  second  son,  and  the  rest  to  his  daughter, 
which  was  $1,440  less  than  the  younger  son  received. 
What  was  the  value  of  the  estate?  (More  advanced 
work). 

One  way  of  considering  the  first,  and  the  one  growing 
out  of  a  prominent  study  of  expression  is  to  give  : 

1.  Statement. — If  one  orange  costs  three  cents,  what 
will  five  oranges  cost  ? 

2.  Analysis. — If  one  orange  costs  three  cents,  five 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  293 

oranges  will  cost  five  times  (?)  three  cents,  which  are 
fifteen  cents. 

3.  Conclusion. — Therefore,  if  one  orange  costs  three 
cents,  five  oranges  will  cost  fifteen  cents. 

Another  way  to  consider  it  is  to  represent  the  condi- 
tions thus : 


o 

O 

O 

O 

O 

000 

ooo 

000 

000 

000 

The  child  may  then  be  led  to  say  : 

1.  I  see  that  there  are  as  many  three  cents  as  there 
are  oranges. 

2.  The  problem  is  one  in  multiplication. 

3.  Three  cents  is  the  multiplicand ;  five  three-cents 
(or  five)  is  the  multiplier;  fifteen  cents  is  the  product. 

One  way  of  considering  the  second,  and  the  one  result- 
ing fi-om  a  study  of  expression,  is  to  give,  as  before : 

1.  Statement. — A  man  left  f  of  his  estate,  etc. 

2.  Analysis. — 

If  a  man  left  f  of  his  estate  to  his  elder  son,  and  ^  of 
the  remainder  to  his  second  son,  the  first  step  is  to  find 
the  remainder. 

Since  the  whole  estate  was  ^  of  itself  and  he  left  f  of 
it  to  his  elder  son,  the  remainder  was  the  difference 
between  ^  and  f  or  4^. 

Second  step.  If  he  left  f  of  the  remainder  to  his 
second  son,  and  the  remainder  was  ^  of  the  estate  he  left 
to  his  second  son  ^  of  f  of  the  estate.  ^  of  |  is  ^  and  ^ 
of  ^  is  4  times  ^  or  Jf .  Therefore  he  gave  to  his  second 
son  \i  of  the  estate. 

Third  step.  If  the  man  left  the  rest  to  his  daughter, 
he  left  to  her  the  difference  between  ^  or  the  whole  estate 


294 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


and  the  sum  of  f  left  to  the  elder  son  and  ^  left  to  the 
younger  son.  f ^^fi-  H  +  if  is  tt.  ff  (or  the  whole 
estate) — f|-  (given  to  the  two  sons)r=i|,  left  to  the 
daughter. 

Fourth  step.  But  the  amount  received  by  the  daughter 
was  $1,440  less  than  that  received  by  the  younger  son. 

The  amount  received  by  the  younger  son  was  if,  and 
by  the  daughter  was  if.     Therefore  $1,440  was  such  a 


part  of  the  estate  as  the  difference  between  if  and  if 
or^. 

Fifth  step.     If  ^  of  the  estate  was  $1,440,  ^  was  i  of 
$1,440  or  $360,  and  ff  or  the  whole  estate  was  49  times 
$360  or  $17,640. 
3.  Conclusion. 

Therefore:  If  a  man  left  f  of  his  estate  to  his  elder 
son  and  -f-  of  the  remainder  to  his  second  son,  and  the 
remainder  to  his  daughter;  and  the  amoilnt  received  by 
the  daughter  was  $1,440  less  than  that  received  by  the 
younger  son,  the  value  of  the  estate  was  $17,640. 

A  different  way  to  deal  with  the  problem  given,  is : — 
1.  To  picture  it  out  thus  : 


2.  To  have  the  analysis  given  somewhat  as  follows : 

1.  It  is  seen  that  the  value  of  -^  is  $1,440. 

2.  The  problem  is  first  one  in   division   (second 
phase). 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  295 

3.  $1,440  is  the  dividend;  4  is  the  divisor;  $360  is 
the  quotient. 

The  work  now  involves  multiplication. 
S360  is  the  multiplicand.     Forty-nine  $360  (or  49)  is 
the  multiplier. 

$17,640  is  the  product— the  value  of  the  estate. 
6.  In  the  failure  to  definitely  determine  and  iveigh. 
a  The  various  conceptions  of  the  scope  of  multiplica- 
tion and  of  division. 

b.  The  various  conceptions  of  the  nature  of  the  mul- 
tiplier, and  hence  of  the  quotient. 

In  regard  to  the  scope  of  multiplication  and  its  con- 
sequent definition,  the  methods  of  determining  are  two : 
(1.)  One  is  to  examine  and  analyze  every  case 
of  multiplication  as  given  by  the  various  authorities 
in  mathematics,  and  then,  rejecting  the  nonessential 
elements  in  each  of  the  cases,  to  synthesize  the  essential 
elements  into  an  abstract  general  conception.  To  this 
concept  the  term  multiplication  is  applied.  This  idea 
of  multiplication  and  the  definition  constructed  upon 
it  would  obviously  be  comprehensive  enough  to  include 
every  authoritative  phase  of  multiplication.  Such 
would  be  the  mode  of  procedure  in  determining  the 
scope  of  division.  This  is  the  scientific  method  of 
definition.  In  this  manner  would  be  detennined  the 
definition  of  the  oak,  a  fish,  etc. 

(2.)  Another  method  is  to   begin  with   three 
propositions. 

(a.)  Numbers  or  numbered   things  can    be 
only  separated  or  combinea. 


296  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

(b.)  The  numbers  or  numbered  things  that 
are  combined  are  either  equal  or  unequal. 

(c.)  The  root  idea  and  the  prevalent  idea  of 
the  term  multiplication  are  to  increase, — to  combine. 

With  these  three  propositions  the  mind  passes  in 
review  each  case  as  given  by  the  various  authorities 
under  the  head  of  arithmetical  operations. 

All  those  that  involve  as  their  essential  element  the 
idea  of  a  uniting  of  numbers  so  as  to  produce  increase, 
are  termed  combination. 

In  the  second  place,  all  cases  of  combination  are 
analyzed.  These  are  found  to  resolve  themselves  into 
cases  in  which  unequal  numbers  are  united,  and  into 
those  in  which  equal  numbers  are  united.  The  former 
are  termed  cases  of  addition. 

The  third  step  is  to  analyze  all  cases  in  which  equal 
numbers  are  united.  This  examination  reveals,  it  is 
held,  that  in  given  cases  the  mind  unites  equal 
numbers  by  separate  steps  or  moves,  and  that  in  other 
given  cases  it  unites  them  instantly  by  memory. 
Whether  this  is  a  true  distinction  is  to  be  answered  by 
consciousness.  The  former  combination  is  termed 
addition  and  the  latter  multiplication. 

The  definition  that  is  then  given  is — Multiplication 
is  uniting  equal  numbers  at  once,  or  by  memory.  Such 
also  would  be  the  process  6f  defining  division. 

The  jnajority,  perhaps  all,  of  the  special  authorities 
in  mathematics  hold  that  the  first  method  is  the  true 
and  scientific  one. 

A  few  educators  who  are  concerned  with  the  general 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  297 

problem  of  education,  consider  the  second  method  as 
the  true  process. 

The  second  process  would  seem  to  be  less  artificial 
and  formal  than  the  first,  and  to  accord  more  with  the 
mind's  natural  tendencies  to  analysis  and  synthesis. 

Under  definitions  obtained  through  the  second  pro- 
cess such  operations  as  2X1=2  (two  multiplied  by  one), 
2X0=0,  0-^1=0,  etc.,  are  not  strictly  provided  for,  as 
are  considered  to  be  purely  formal,  not  actual. 

Under  the  head  of  form,  therefore,  they  are  classed 
as  operations  of  the  processes  severally  indicated  by 
the  form. 

Further,  by  the  definition  derived  through  the  second 
method  such  expressions  as — ^  x  J  or  i  of  ^,  are  pro- 
vided for  under  the  second  phase  of  division — that  in 
which,  the  number  itself  and  the  number  of  parts  into 
which  it  is  to  be  separated  being  known,  the  aim  is  to 
find  the  size  of  one  part. 

Those  who  hold  that  the  idea  of  multiplication  as 
obtained  by  the  second  mode  of  procedure  is  the  more 
correct  and  the  more  valuable,  attempt  to  show  that 
such  cases  as  i  of  ^  belong  under  division  thus : 

Let  abcd=l ;  abc=J  of  abed  ;  and  cfe=^  of  abc. 


c 
It  is  evident  that  to  obtain  '*  cfe,"  "  abc  "  is  not  mul- 
tiplied but  divided.    The  only  sense  in  which  there  is 


298  THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  I 

_  .  ^ 

any  multiplication,  in  the  limited  scope  in  which  that  j 
term  is  used  under  the  second  mode  of  procedure,  is  in  ' 
that  it  requires  two  parts  the  size  of  "  abc  "  to  constitute  \ 
"abed,"  and  six  the  size  of  "  cfe."  But  this  is  obviously  | 
not  a  multiplication  of  "  abc."  1 

It  has  been  held  under  the  second  idea  of  division  as  ] 
above  noted,  that  a  fraction  cannot  be  divided  by  a  \ 
whole  number,  as  e.  g.,  i-^2;  that  is,  the  operation  as  \ 
expressed,  cannot  be  performed.  The  "  2  "  in  this  case  1 
does  not  represent  an  integer  which  shall  become  the  ■ 
divisor,  but  the  number  of  parts  into  which  ^  is  to  be  'i 
separated,  and  the  problem  becomes — Find  i  of  2.  A  ; 
case  under  the  second  phase  of  division.  ' 

According  to  the  more  comprehensive  definitions  of  I 
multiplication  and  division,  all  these  cases  referred  to,  \ 
together  with  such  as  "7  is  what  part  of  3?"  are  pro-  ] 
vided  for  under  those  phases  to  which  their  respective  i 
forms  would  assign  them.  ] 

In  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  multiplier,  one  view  is  1 
that  it  (considered  as  a  symbol)  expresses  a  relation —  | 
the  ratio  of  the  product  to  the  multiplicand.  That  is,  ; 
if  6  is  the  product  and  2  the  multiplicand,  3  is  the  mul-  j 
tiplier,  in  that  it  expresses  the  ratio  of  6  to  2.  If  2  is  , 
the  product,  and  6  the  multiplicand,  i  is  the  multiplier  \ 
as  it  expresses  the  ratio  of  2  to  6.  This  is  perhaps  the  ; 
most  satisfactory  scientific  conception  of  the  multiplier.  \ 
It  is  held  to  be  the  true  conception  by  those  who  have  i 
given  most  thought  to  mathematics  as  a  science.  It  is  I 
comprehensive  in  that  it  provides  for  any  case  of  multi-  \ 
plication  as  considered  in  the  wider  sense.  Another  i 
view  is  that  "  the  multiplier  is  a  number  indicating  the  ■ 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  299 

number  of  times  the  multiplicand  is  to  be  taken."  With 
a  liberal  interpretation  of  the  application  of  the  word 
"  times,"  this  idea  of  the  multiplier  would  apply  to  any 
case  occurring  under  multiplication  viewed  in  its  broad 
sense.  This  is  the  most  prevalent  conception  of  the 
multiplier.  In  this  and  in  the  previous  view,  the  mul- 
tiplier is  considered  as  always  abstract. 

A  third  conception  of  the  multiplier  is  that  it  expresses 
the  number  of  equal  numbers  or  of  numbered  things 
that  are  united.  In  this  view  multiplication  is  consid- 
ered as  the  uniting  of  equal  numbers  ;  the  multiplicand 
as  one  of  these  number ;  the  multiplier  as  the  number 
of  equal  numbers ;  and  the  product  as  the  equal  num- 
bers united. 

The  following  example  will  illustrate  the  thought: 
2x3=6.  Considering  2  as  the  multiplier,  3  as  the  mul- 
tiplicand and  6  as  the  product,  if  squares  are  meant,  the 
sentence  would  read :  Two  3  squares  are  6  squares,  and 
would  appear  to  the  eye  thus : — 

Multiplicand. 

D^^  DDD. 

Multiplier. 

The  two  groups  united  form  the  product,  and  these 
statements  seem  to  follow : — 

Three  squares  is  the  multiplicand. 

Two  three-squares  is  the  multiplier. 

Six  squares  is  the  product. 

In  this  view  of  the  multiplier  it  is  not  considered  as 
always  abstract.  The  thought  is  that  in  the  concrete 
stage  of  the  child's  thinking,  the  multiplier  is  concrete 


300                         THE    THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  \ 

when  the  multiplicand  is,  and  that  by  the  natural  order  1 

of  the  mind's  development  in  passing  from  concrete  par-  j 

ticulars  to   abstract  general   conceptions,  the   concrete  \ 

idea  of  the  multiplier  merges  into  the  conception  of  it  j 

as  a  ratio,  within  the  scope  of  the  uniting  of  equal  num-  j 

bers.  I 

This  idea  of  the  multiplier  is  not  accepted  by  the  ; 

various  authorities  in  mathematics.     It  is  held,  however,  ] 

by  a  few  educators  who  have  made  a  close  study  of  mind  \ 

development  and   of  the  adaptation   of  arithmetic   to  ; 

mind  as  an  instrument  of  development.     These  consider  \ 

such  a  conception  of  the  multiplier  as  true  to  the  science  J 

of  number,   adapted  to   mind   development    at  every  ] 

stage,  and  as  tending  to  give  definiteness  to  all  arithme-  I 

tical  conceptions.  | 

STAGES.  1 

Stages  in  number  and  arithmetic,  as  based  on  mind  I 

development  and  the  nature  of  the  subject,  seem  to  be  I 

four  in  number.  ] 

THE  STAGE  OF  PERCEPTION. 

In  this  stage  the  child  can  not  learn  numbers  and  ^ 

their  relations  except  through  the  medium  of  objects  i 

present  to  the  senses.  \ 

This  incapacity  is  the  ground  for  the  concrete  work  in  { 

giving  the  first  ideas  of  numbers.                      .  1 

Whether  or  not  objects  are  to  be  used  in  early  num-  ] 

ber  work  is  not  left  to  the  opinion  of  the  teacher.     This  | 

point  is  predetermined  by  the  nature  of  child-mind,  and  \ 

it  only  remains  for  the  teacher  to  study  and  understand  \ 

the  material  he  is  trainings  and  to  adapt  the  work  to  it.  j 


•       THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  301 

The  concrete  work  that  is  done  should  not,  however, 
be  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  meaning  of  figures, 
with  the  idea  that  the  children  are  afterwards  to  deal 
with  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication  and  division 
by  means  of  figures.  The  work  with  objects  is  to  give 
ideas  of  numbers  and  their  relations ;  to  teach  the  pro- 
cesses, and  to  give  the  pupil  skill  and  accuracy  in  per- 
forming them,  and  in  applying  them  to  practical 
problems.  The  distinction  between  numbers  and  figures 
is  important.  Figures  are  but  arbitrary  signs,  represent- 
ing numbers,  and  teaching  the  meaning  and  use  of 
figures  is  essentially  language  work,  not  number  work. 

To  teach  this  language  before  the  pupil  has  learned 
number  with  objects  is  to  fill  his  mind  with  useless 
lumber,  and  to  destroy,  in  a  large  measure,  his  inborn 
desire  to  know. 

This  mistake  is  less  only  than  that  of  teaching  figures 
to  give  first  ideas  of  numbers,  and  of  assuming  that  in 
studying  figures  one  is  learning  numbers.  "There  is 
no  difficulty  in  learning  the  figures  along  with  the  num- 
bers ;  the  difficulty  comes  in  learning  the  numbers  along  with 
the  figures.  So  it  seems  best  to  ignore  the  sign  in  favor 
of  the  thing." 

The  objects  to  be  used  in  the  work  should  be  various. 
Among  them  may  be  mentioned :  form,  in  wood,  paper 
(paper  folding),  and  drawings  ;  grouped  objects,  as  brace, 
span,  yoke,  etc.;  units  of  measure,  as  pint,  peck,  inch, 
etc.;  objects  in  room,  as  window-panes,  lines,  corners, 
doors,  pieces  of  furniture,  pictures,  etc.;  parts  of  animals ; 
parts  of  plants  and  flowers ;  kinds  of  minerals ;  fingers ; 
the  pupils  themselves ;  miscellaneous  objects,  as  shells, 


302  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

pieces  of  chalk,  pegs,  etc.;  kindergarten  material,  espe- 
cially the  first  six  gifts  ;  the  abacus. 

Since  the  aim  in  using  objects  is  to  ultimately  free  the 
mind  from  the  necessity  of  using  them,  they  Should  be 
wide  in  range. 

Since  interest  is  the  basis  of  attention,  they  should  be 
of  such  a  nature  that  the  child  can  conveniently  handle 
them.  Since  they  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
ideas  of  number  they  should  not  be  so  attractive  as  to 
draw  the  attention  from  the  idea  of  number. 

The  stage  of  perception  covers,  approximately,  the 
work  of  the  first  year. 

THE  STAGE  OF  IMAGINATION. 

This  stage  occupies  about  the  time  of  the  second  and 
third  years.  But  the  mind  has  now  advanced  to  that 
degree  of  power  which  enables  it  to  study  numbers  and 
their  relations  by  means  of  objects  absent  to  the  senses, 
but  present  in  the  imagination.  According  to  the  prin- 
ciple that ''  Nature  does  nothing  per  saltum,^^  there  is  to 
be  no  sudden  transition  from  the  first  to  this  stage,  the 
withdrawal  of  objects  being  gradual,  and  being  deter- 
mined by  the  pupil's  ability  to  image  absent  objects. 

The  purpose  of  the  stage  is  to  make  the  pupil  rapid 
and  accurate  in  his  power  to  think  numbers  and  their 
relations  by  means  of  objects  present  to  the  imagina- 
tion. This  is  the  stage  in  which  most  work  in  the 
picturing  out  of  the  conditions  of  problems  to  the  mind 
by  means  of  drawing  or  sketching  is  done. 

THE  STAGE  OP  TRANSITION. 

This  stage  includes,  approximately,  the  period  of  the 
fourth  year  in  school.     In  the  first  part  of  the  year  the 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  303 

mind  is  more  largely  engaged  in  thinking  the  relations 
of  numbers  by  means  of  objects  present  to  the  imagina- 
tion, and  yet  it  is  growing  more  and  more  into  the  habit 
of  considering  numbers  through  figures.  In  the  second 
part  of  the  year  the  mind  is  engaged  more  largely  in 
the  consideration  of  numbers  and  their  relations 
through  symbols,  while  to  a  considerable  extent  en- 
gaged in  a  study  of  them  by  means  of  objects  present 
to  the  imagination.  Hence,  the  stage  is  termed  the 
stage  of  transition. 

THE  STAGE  OF  PRINCIPLES  AND  SYMBOLS. 

This  stage,  beginning  about  the  fifth  year,  extends 
throughout  the  remainder  of  the  work  in  arithmetic. 

PRINCIPLES. 

Among  the  principles  to  be  considered  in  the  method 
work  in  number  are  the  following-: — 

1.  Number  work  should  be  concrete. 

2.  '  Nature  does  nothing  per  saltum,  but  step  by 
step.' 

3.  Small  numbers  should  be  employed  in  elemen- 
tary work,  and  in  giving  first  ideas  of  each  branch  of 
work. 

4.  All  the  processes  are  implied  in  addition. 

5.  The  process  of  gaining  ideas  of  numbers  requires 
some  such  term  as  ideation  or  numerical  ideation.  The 
process  bears  the  same  relation  to  notation  that  gaining 
the  ideas  in  reading,  does  to  the  mastery  of  the  printed 
terms. 

6.  Ideation  is  practical  and  theoretical — practical 
when  it  presents  a   number  as  composed  of  so  many 


304  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

units  of  the  same  kind ;  and  theoretical  when  it  presents 
a  number  as  composed  of  so  many  units  of  the  same 
kind,  and  also  as  composed  of  units  different  in  kind, 
and  having  the  relation  of  one  to  ten. 

7.  Notation,  which  is  merely  the  expression  side  of 
ideation,  is  consequently  practical  and  theoretical. 


Theoretic  ideation  may  be  explained  when  the  num- 
ber ten  is  reached,  or  the  time  may  be  determined  by 
the  necessity  for  the  use  of  the  ideas.  This  would  place 
the  time  of  explanation  sometime  in  the  second  year, 
or  at  the  beginning  of  the  third.  It  is  best,  probably, 
to  defer  it  until  the  beginning  of  the  third  year. 

In  practical  ideation  the  number  three  is  taught  as  a 
whole  composed  of  three  ones  of  the  same  kind  (units); 
the  number  eleven  is  taught  as  a  whole  composed  of 
eleven  ones  of  the  same  kind  (units);  the  number  nine- 
teen is  taught  as  a  whole  composed  of  nineteen  ones  of 
the  same  kind,  (units),  etc. 

In  theoretical  ideation  the  number  three,  and  all  num- 
bers between  one  and  nine  inclusive,  are  taught  as  in 
practical  ideation;  the  number  eleven  is  taught  as  a 
whole  composed  of  two  kinds  of  ones  (unit  and  ten), 
and  the  relative  value  of  the  ones  is  shown.  It  is  also 
taught  as  a  whole  composed  of  eleven  ones  (units);  the 
number  nineteen  is  taught  as  a  whole  composed  of  nine 
ones  of  one  kind  (units)  and  one  one  of  another  kind 
(ten),  and  the  relative  value  of  the  different  kinds  of  ones 
is  shown.  It  is  also  taught  as  a  whole  composed  of 
nineteen  ones  (units),  etc. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  306 

When  a  class  enters  upon  formal  aritmetic,  i.  e.,  about 
the  beginning  of  the  third  year,  its  first  effort  is  to  learn 
theoretical  ideation.  The  principle  of  theoretical  idea- 
tion is  that  a  number  may  be  considered  as  divided  into 
successive  multiples  of  ten. 

In  regard  to  the  first  nine  numbers,  in  practical 
ideation,  it  is  only  necessary  to  say  that  they  should  be 
given  as  one-unit,  two-units,  etc.  The  necessity  for 
explanation  does  not  arise  until  the  number  ten  is 
reached.  Two  points  are  to  be  shown  in  regard  to  this 
number : — 

1.  That  it  is  to  be  considered  as  grouped,  as  a  ten. 

2.  The  advantage  of  grouping. 

In  proceeding  beyond  ten  the  reckoning  begins  with 
units  again,  viewing  them  as  added  to  the  one  ten  already 
grouped ;  so  that  the  numbers  are  in  succession,  one  ten 
and  one  unit;  one  ten  and  two  units,  etc.,  which  are  to 
be  called  for  convenience  eleven,  twelve,  etc.  After 
twenty  the  gradual  addition  of  units  is  resumed,  etc. 
The  grouping  of  ten  tens  is  to  be  on  the  same  principle 
as  that  embodied  in  grouping  ten  units,  etc. 

NOTATION. 

Notation  may  likewise  be  viewed  as  practical  and 
theoretical. 

In  practical  notation  the  symbol  3  is  taught  as  a  whole, 
a  picture,  a  sign,  representing  the  idea  or  number  three; 
the  symbol  11  is  taught  as  a  whole,  a  picture,  a  sign, 
representing  the  idea  or  number  eleven  ;  the  symbol  19 
is  taught  as  a  whole,  a  picture  or  sign  representing  the 
number  nineteen,  etc. 

In  theoretical  notation  the  symbol  3  and  all  symbols 

21 


306  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

from  1  to  9  inclusive  are  taught  as  in  practical  notation; 
the  symbol  11  is  taught  as  a  sign  composed  of  two  fig- 
ures, one  representing  one  of  the  two  kinds  of  ones  in 
the  number  eleven,  and  the  other  representing  the  other 
kind  of  one ;  the  symbol  19  is  taught  as  a  sign  com- 
posed of  two  figures,  one  representing  the  nine  ones  of 
one  kind  in  the  number  nineteen,  and  the  other  repre- 
senting the  one  one  of  the  other  kind,  etc. 

It  is  obvious  that  it  is  with  the  symbol  10  that  the 
necessity  for  explanation  arises.  The  manner  of  pro- 
cedure is : — 

1.  To  show  that  the  one  ten  resembles  the  one  unit 
in  being  a  one,  but  that  it  differs  from  it  in  value. 

2.  To  show  that  therefore  the  symbol  should  be  like 
that  for  one  unit  and  yet  different  from  it. 

3.  To  show  that  the  same  symbol  is  employed,  the 
difference  being  that  it  is  held  in  the  second  place  by  the 
cipher,  which  in  itself  expresses  no  value. 

4.  To  explain  the  principle  of  notation,  i.  e.,  that 
the  difference  in  value  expressed  by  a  figure  is  denoted 
by  relative  position. 

5.  To  treat  of  the  combination  of  the  symbols  for 
tens  and  units. 

If  it  has  been  impressed  that  one  ten  is  denoted  by 
the  symbol  1  in  the  second  place  from  the  right,  and 
the  one  unit  by  the  symbol  1  with  nothing  to  its  right, 
the  pupil  will  have  but  little  difficulty  in  seeing  that 
one  ten  and  one  unit  together,  or  eleven,  should  be  in- 
dicated by  two  symbols  in  the  relation  indicated  by  11. 

The  point  to  be  made  clear  is  that  simple  juxtaposi- 
tion of  the  symbol  for  ten  with  the  symbol  for  one,  viz., 


THE    THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  307 

101  would  not  denote  eleven.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  to  show  that  the  cipher  is  used  only  to  keep  fig- 
ures in  their  proper  relative  positions. 

If  the  preceding  points  are  illustrated  with  sufiicient 
clearness  the  pupils  may  be  led  to  infer  the  symbols  to 
100,  after  which  they  should  have  various  exercises  in 
observing,  making,  and  using  the  symbols. 

The  symbol  100  is  the  next  difficult  point.  The  man- 
ner of  treating  it  is  analogous  to  that  used  in  consider- 
ing 10.  This  symbol  should  be  compared  carefully 
with  other  symbols  of  three  figures,  especially  with  111, 
110,  101. 

Two  points  are  to  be  held  in  mind :  one  is  that  the 
pupil  should  not  be  held  exclusively  to  theoretical  no- 
tation, but  is  to  consider  in  connection  with  it  all  rela- 
tions and  processes,  since  it  is  futile  to  attempt  to  ex- 
haust this  or  any  other  subject  at  the  time  the  pupil  is 
introduced  to  it ;  the  other  is  that  in  the  explanation  of 
notation  terms  must  be  used  with  precision  and  con- 
sistency. 

The  importance  of  dwelling  with  care  upon  ideation 
and  notation  will  be  evident  from  the  following : — 

1.  When  the  principle  of  ideation,  that  a  number 
may  be  considered  as  divided  into  the  successive  multiples  of 
ten^  is  comprehended,  every  operation  becomes  a  prece- 
dent for  another ;  while  otherwise  every  process  in  arith- 
metic would  be  reduced  to  mere  counting. 

2.  It  is  in  the  light  of  the  principles  of  ideation  and 
notation  that  the  several  partial  results  are  arranged  in 
the  various  processes. 

Illustrate"!"  and  "2." 


308  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


OUTLINE  OF  WORK. 

Practical  ideation  of  whole  numbers  to  ten. 
Ideation  of  fractions  to  tenths.    The  relations  in  whole 
numbers  to  ten. 

The  relations  in  fractions  to  tenths. 
The  units  of  measures  and  their  relations  in  so  far  as 
they  are  involved  in  numbers  from  one  to  ten. 


Practical  notation  of  numbers  from  one  to  ten. 
Practical  notation  of  fractions  to  tenths. 
Practical  ideation  of  numbers  from  ten  to  twenty. 
Practical  notation  of  numbers  from  ten  to  twenty. 
Ideation  of  fractions  to  twentieths. 
Notations  of  fractions  to  twentieths. 
The  units  of  measures  and  their  relations  in  so  far  as 
they  are  involved  in  numbers  from  ten  to  twenty. 

Theoretical  ideation  of  numbers  from  ten  to  one  hun- 
dred. 

Theoretical  notation  of  numbers  from  ten  to  one 
hundred. 

The  fraction  involved  in  numbers  from  twenty  to  one 
hundred  ;  (especially  the  one  hundreth,  percentage.) 

The  units  of  measure  and  their  relations  in  so  far  as 
they  are  involved  in  the  numbers  from  twenty  to  one 
hundred. 

The  process  of  addition  and  subtraction,  in  which  num- 
bers and  fractions,  to  one  hundred  and  hundredths  are 
involved. 

Multiplication,  involving  fractions,  and  whole  numbers 
to  ones  of  thousands. 

Division,  involving  fractions,  and  whole  numbers  to 
ones  of  thousands. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  309 


DETAILS  OF   WORK. 
FIRST  YEAR. 


First  step.  The  first  step  in  number  work  is  to  deter- 
mine the  condition  of  the  child's  mind  as  to  number. 

This  is  to  be  done  by  some  such  tests  as  the  following : 
— (each  pupil  being,  if  practicable,  tested  apart  from  the 
others).  Say  to  the  pupil  (showing  one  object)  ,  Take 
as  many  as  I  have.  If  the  child  is  able  to  do  so,  ask. 
How  many  have  I  ? 

If  he  is  able  to  give  the  oral  term — one^  say,  Bring  me 
one — (naming  some  object).  Point  out  other  ones  in 
the  room.  Tell  of  ones  that  you  can  think  of  out  of 
the  room,  etc. 

If  the  child  is  able  to  answer  satisfactorily  all  these 
tests,  apply  similar  ones  to  the  number  two,  and  so  con- 
tinue until  the  limit  of  the  child's  knowledge  in  number 
is  definitely  known. 


WORK    OF    THE    FIRST   THREE    MONTHS. 


The  work  during  a  period  of  about  three  months  in 
80  far  as  number  is  concerned  is  incidental. 

The  main  idea  is  to  train  the  mind  by  a  consideration 
oiform^  as  sphere,  cube,  cylinder,  prism,  square,  triangle, 
lines,  points,  etc. 

In  doing  this  work  number  is,  of  necessity,  incident- 
ally introduced  and  learned. 

The  nature  of  this  combined  form  and  number  work 
may  be  seen  from  the  following : — 

(It  is  not  to  be  understood  that  the  numbering  necessarily 
indicates  the  order  in  which  the  forms  are  to  be  studied. 
The  exercises  are  given  merely  to  suggest  the  kind  of  work, 
not  the  order.) 


310  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

1.  With  the  sphere. 

The  teacher  may  place  before  the  children  the  sphere, 
and  lead  them  to  describe  it  orally,  to  mold  it,  to  name 
things  resembling  it,  in  the  room,  in  nature,  at  home, 
and  to  represent  spherical  objects  on  the  board,  as  a 
ball,  an  apple,  a  peach,  etc. 

The  number  work  arises  incidentally  and  is  of  this 
nature : 

How  many  spheres  are  on  the  table?  How  many 
did  you  mold?  If  you  place  the  sphere  you  molded 
with  the  one  on  the  table,  how  many  spheres  do  you 
have?  Two  spheres  less  one  sphere  are  how  many 
spheres?  Two  one-spheres  are  how  many  spheres? 
In  two  spheres  there  are  how  many  one-spheres?  How 
many  things  that  are  at  home  can  you  think  of  that  are 
like  a  sphere  ?  etc. 

2.  With  the  triangular  prism. 

The  prism  is  shown  to  the  child,  he  observes  it  care- 
fully, and  by  skillful  questioning  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher,  is  led  to  describe  it :  which  description  consists 
in  giving  its  lines,  faces,  angles,  corners,  etc. 

The  teacher  of  course  gives  the  child  the  correct  name 
of  each,  when  he  has  a  clear  idea  of  it. 

In  this  work  the  child  is  using  his  perceptive  facul- 
ties, and  strengthening  his  powers  of  observation. 

He  is  then  ready  to  make  a  similar  prism  of 
molding  clay.  In  this  part  of  the  work  he  is  taught 
carefulness  and  accuracy,  using  his  fingers  to  shape  and 
smooth  the  form  with  which  he  is  working. 

So  far  the  child  has  been  gaining  the  idea  of  the  form. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  311 

Next  he  is  required  to  point  out  or  name  objects  in 
the  room  that  are  similar  to  the  triangular  prism.  Also 
to  name  objects  at  home,  on  the  street,  or  elsewhere,  of 
similar  shape,  perhaps  describing  or  telling  something 
about  some  of  them. 

Then  he  is  required  to  draw  objects  that  are  similar 
to  the  prism  described. 

In  this  work  he  is  applying  his  knowledge  oj  triangular 
prisms,  and  training  his  eye  and  hand,  as  well  as  gain- 
ing language. 

The  child  is  now  ready  to  begin  number  loork  with  this 
object. 

The  prism  may  be  placed  before  him,  and  such  ques- 
tions as  the  following  may  be  asked:  (Each  teacher 
must  be  judge  of  the  kind  and  number  of  questions, 
and  be  governed  by  the  development  of  the  child's 
mind,  and  the  circumstance  under  which  he  is  work- 
ing-) 

How  many  prisms  do  you  see  ? 

(Taking  it  away).     Now,  how  many  ? 

One  prism  less  one  prism  are  how  many  prisms  ? 

How  many  faces  do  you  see  ? 

(Changing).     How  many  now  ? 

How  many  faces  on  the  sides  of  the  prism  ? 

How  many  on  the  ends? 

How  many  in  all?  (Using  numbers  as  wholes,  not 
counting). 

How  many  comers  do  you  see? 

Now,  how  many? 

Point  out  two  corners. 

Point  out  the  two  upper  corners. 


312  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

Point  out  the  two  lower  corners. 
How  many  corners  in  all?  etc. 

Upper,  lower,  front,  back,  right,  left,  etc.,  are  taught  with 
form  rather  than  with  number.  In  the  child's  answers  his 
language  must  be  guarded,  and  every  answer  must  be  a  full, 
clear,  complete  sentence. 

3.    With  the  cube. 

The  teacher  places  before  the  child  the  cube,  and  by 
•talking  about  it  in  an  interesting  manner  the  child  is 
led  to  observe  it  closely  and  to  describe  it  as  to  form, 
through  skillful  questioning  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 
The  teacher  should  correct  any  wrong  idea  the  child  has 
of  its  form,  by  leading  him  to  observe  it  more  closely. 
When  he  is  found  to  have  a  clear  conception  of  its 
form,  he  is  given  molding  clay  with  which  to  mold  it, 
either  from  an  irregular  mass  or  from  the  sphere  pre- 
viously made.  Changing  the  sphere  into  the  cube  will 
give  the  child  an  idea  of  the  relation  of  the  sphere  and 
the  cube  and  will  more  clearly  illustrate  the  difference 
in  form.  The  molding  should  be  done  with  the  perfect 
form  in  view.  The  description,  molding  and  drawing 
(which  might  be  employed)  of  the  cube,  are  designed  to 
give  the  child  a  clear  conception  of  it. 

The  child  is  now  asked  to  name  objects  in  the  room 
resembling  the  cube,  also  to  name  such  objects  that  he 
has  seen  at  home,  on  the  play -ground,  etc.,  thus  calling 
into  exercise  the  observation  and  memory. 

The  answers  will  disclose  whether  the  child  has  the 
power  to  apply  the  idea  of  the  cube  to  objects  of  nature 
and  art. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  313 

Form  having  been  thus  dealt  with  the  teacher  may 
now  present  number  incidentally. 

Thus,  questions  similar  to  the  following  may  be  asked : 

What  do  you  see  as  to  the  corners  ?  (holding  the  cube 
before  the  child.) 

The  child  may  be  led  to  answer,  I  see  four  corners. 
Four  corners  less  one  corner  (covering  one  corner)  leave 
how  many  corners?  "Three  corners."  Four  corners 
less  two  corners?  In  four  corners  how  many  two- 
corners?     Four  one-corners  are  how  many  corners,  etc. 

In  a  similar  manner  the  questioning  may  continue 
until  all  the  different  processes  have  been  touched  upon. 

The  work  might  be  taken  through  all  the  relations  of 
the  numbers  as  given  by  the  corners,  angles,  edges,  etc.; 
then  having  the  pupil  place  the  cube  he  has  formed 
beside  the  one  being  dealt  with  continue  the  work, 
enlarging  upon  it.  But  number  need  not  be  present- 
ed at  the  length  allowed  by  the  material,  as  the  aim  is 
to  make  the  form  prominent  and  the  number  incidental. 

4.  With  the  cylinder. 
The  teacher  places  on  the  desk,  a  cylinder,  which  the 
children  observe  closely,  and  by  her  questioning,  and 
work  with  the  cylinder,  they  are  led  to  describe  it  orally. 
The  children  may  then  be  asked  to  mold  the  cylinder. 
This  they  do,  being  very  careful  to  shape  it  with  the  tips 
of  their  fingers,  so  that  every  movement  requires  a  men- 
tal act.  The  work  thus  far  is  intended  to  give  a  clear 
conception  of  the  cylinder.  It  is  also  necessary  that 
they  should  know  how  to  apply  this  knowledge,  so  the 
teacher  asks  them  to  name  every  thing  in  the  room  that 


314  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

is  like  the  cylinder  ;  then  objects  that  they  have  seen  at 
home,  on  the  street,  etc.,  that  are  like  the  cylinder. 
This  is  to  be  followed  by  drawings  on  the  board  of  cylin- 
drical objects. 

At  this  stage,  number  may  be  brought  in,  in  a  manner 
somewhat  as  follows : 

The  teacher  points  to  the  cylinder  and  asks — How 
many  faces  do  you  see  ?  (Covering  one  face)  How  many  ? 

Tell  me  about  it.     The  child  would  answer — 

Three  faces  less  one  face,  are  two  faces. 

In  three  faces  how  many  one-faces  ?  How  many  three 
faces  ?    Three  one-faces  are  how  many  faces  ? 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  these  questions  are  only 
suggestive;  and  that  the  relations  of  number  in  connec- 
tion with  the  various  forms  are  not  to  be  exhausted  as 
this  would  be  teaching  number  not  as  incidental. 

WORK  OF    THE    LAST    SEVEN    MONTHS. 

About  the  fourth  rnonth,  the  number  work  that  has 
theretofore  been  incidental  in  connection  with'  form,  be- 
comes regular  and  systematic,  based  upon  the  use  of 
objects  present  to  the  senses,  as  indicated  in  the  stage  of 
perception. 

The  ostensible  aim  is  to  give  clear  ideas  of  the  numbers 
from  one  to  ten,  but  the  ideas  of  these  numbers  are  really 
means,  not  ends,  and  the  true  end  is  the  training  of  the 
mind  by  activity  upon  these  ideas,  and  the  all-impor- 
tant question  for  the  teacher  in  regard  to  each  number 
is — How  can  the  idea  of  this  number  be  presented  so  as  to 
give  the  highest  and  best  training  to  the  mind  f 

All  the  dififerent  lines  of  work,  as  upon  whole  num- 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  315 

bers,  fractions,  and  units   of  measure,  move  forward 
abreast. 

Each  number  is  considered : 

1.  As  a  whole. 

2.  As  to  the  relations  in  it. 

3.  In  its  applications. 

The  first  work  with  a  number,  considering  it  as  a 
whole,  is  to  present  its  idea  and  its  oral  term.  The  idea 
of  a  number  is  obtained  when  it  is  known  as  composed 
of  the  next  lower  number  and  one,  and  a^  made  up  of  so  many 
ones  of  the  same  kind. 

Thus,  the  presentation  of  the  idea  and  oral  term  of 
two  consists  in  teaching : 

1.  A  new  combination   composed    of   an   already 
known  number — one,  and  one  more. 

2.  That  the  oral  term  for  this  new  combination  is 
two. 

3.  That  two  consists  of  two  ones  (units)  of  the  same 
kind. 

As  a  Whole. 

The  idea  and  oral  term  of  two  having  been  taught, 
there  remain  various  devices  by  which  the  mind  may 
be  trained  in  considering  it  as  a  whole : 

1.  Two  may  be  dealt  with  as  a  whole,  and  the  ob- 
servation powers  developed : 

a.  By  having  all  the  twos  in  the  room  pointed 
out  (sight). 

h.  By  leading  the  pupils  to  observe  two  taps  of 
a  pencil,  two  sounds  of  a  bell,  two  notes  of  a  piano,  two 
ticks  of  a  clock,  etc.  (hearing). 


316  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

c.  By  placing  on  the  desk  a  collection  of  objects, 
and  having  the  children  with  closed  eyes  select  twos 
(touch). 

2.  Two  may  be  studied  as  a  whole,  and  the  memory 
be  cultivated  by  requiring  the  children  to  recall  twos  seen 
on  the  play-ground,  in  the  street,  at  home,  in  other  re- 
gions. 

3.  Two  may  be  presented  as  a  whole,  and  the  child's 
interest  aroused,  and  his  will  trained  by  having  him  do, 
e.  g.,  move  the  thumb  twice,  step  twice,  toss  a  ball  twice, 
give  sound  of  a  letter  twice,  j^lace  two  sticks  in  various 
positions,  string  beads  in  twos  by  color,  arrange  paper  tri- 
angles in  twos  by  color,  string  kindergarten  fundamental 
forms  in  twos,  illustrate  problems  involving  two  by 
drawings,  arrange  in  twos,  shells,  pegs,  pebbles,  leaves, 
etc. 

4.  Two  may  be  taught  as  a  whole,  and  the  mind 
trained  by  considering  the  meaning  of  the  words — 
couple,  pair,  yoke,  span,  brace,  etc.;  by  calling  attention 
to  the  members  of  the  body,  parts  of  vehicles,  buildings, 
engines,  etc.,  that  are  arranged  in  pairs. 

The  association  of  the  printed  words  with  these  ideas 
is  to  be  presented  in  the  reading  work,  but  the  ideas  be- 
long to  number.  Thus  do  the  different  lines  of  study, 
if  the  work  be  organized,  supplement  each  other,  as  seen 
previously  in  number,  form  and  language. 

Relations  in  the  Number. 

To  the  consideration  of  two  as  a  whole  should  succeed 
work  with  the  relations  in  it. 

By  means  of  objects  present  to  the  senses  the  children 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  317 

should  be  led  to  see  and  to  express  orally  the  following 
relations,  the  order  being  immaterial: 

One  and  one  are  two. 

Two  less  one  is  one. 

Two  less  two  is  naught. 

Two  ones  are  two. 

One  two  is  two. 

In  two  there  are  two  ones. 

In  two  there  is  one  two. 

In  the  history  of  the  development  of  method  in  number  work 
there  have  been  several  modes  of  dealing  with  numbers  and 
their  relations  : 

1.  That  which  dealt  merely  with  the  figures  and  symbols 
of  relation. 

2.  That  which  dealt  with  the  figures  and  symbols,  but  used 
objects  to  illustrate  them. 

3.  That  in  which  the  teacher,  having  in  mind  a  given  form 
of  statement  (oral),  uses  the  objects,  so  manipulating  them,  and 
so  questioning  as  to  awaken  the  thought  of  the  statement,  and 
to  obtain  the  statement  she  has  predetermined. 

This  kind  of  work  is  based  on  principles  '*  1 "  and  "  2  "  (page 
303).  According  to  these  principles  a  number,  e.  g.  three  would 
be  considered  as  follows  (Many  exercises  and  examples  being 
given  nnder  each  relation^ : 

Thrt*. 

a.  **  Three  as  a  whole. 

b.  Discoveries  in  three. 

c.  Facts  in  three. 
(1).  Two  and  one. 
(2).  One  and  two. 
(3).  Three  minus  one. 
(4).  Three  minus  two. 

(6).  Three  divided  by  one. 


318  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

(6).  Three  ones. 
(7).  Three  minus  three, 
d.  Comparison  of  three  with  numbers  known. 
At  various  stages  ample  reviews  are  taken  upon  these  rela- 
tions.    In  connection  with  the  review,  the  written  word  for  the 
lower  numbers  and  for  the  number  being  studied  may  be  given 
thus: 

•        ••        ••• 

one       two         three 

Four. 

a.  Four  as  a  whole. 

b.  Discoveries  in  four. 

c.  Facts  in  four. 

(1).  Three  and  one. 
(2).  One  and  three. 
(3).  Four  minus  one. 
(4).  Four  minus  three. 
(5).  Two  and  two. 
(6).  Four  minus  two. 
(7).  Four  divided  by  two. 
(8).  Two  twos, 
(y).  Four  minus  four.  2 
(10).  Four  divided  by  one. 
(11).  Four  ones. 

d.  Comparison  of  four  with  number  known. 

e.  Writing — 

•         ••        •••         •••• 

one        two         three  four.      "  * 

(Prepare  exercises  and  examples  under  each  relation  indi- 
cated under  the  numbers  three  and  four.     What  reasons  can  be 
given  in  favor  of  teaching  a  certain  relation  first,  etc.?    What 
reasons  against  ?) 
♦Primary  Arithmetic,  Wentworth  <&  Reed.    Ginn  &  Co..,  Boston. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  3l9 


4.  A  fourth,  and  to  some,  a  preferable  mode ,  which  is  to 
place  the  objects  before  the  pupils  for  the  sole  purpose  of 
awakening  their  thought,  and  of  enabling  them  to  perceive  the 
relations  of  numbers,  allowing  the  expression  to  be  determined 
by  what  they  see,  giving  no  regard  as  to  whether  the  relations 
as  seen  in  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  or  division,  are 
seen  and  expressed  first. 

The  relation  first  seen  by  the  pupil  and  his  own  spontaneous 
expression  of  it,  if  correct,  are  to  be  accepted  in  the  beginning 
without  any  attempt  to  force  upon  him  any  particular  mode  of 
seeing  the  relation  or  any  technical  and  arbitrary  arithmetical 
expression. 

Such  are  to  be  considered  and  used  in  the  later  stages. 

The  above  mentioned  relations  of  two  (page  )  hav- 
ing been  dealt  with,  those  that  are  involved  in  the  second 
phase  of  division  are  to  claim  attention. 

Thus,  (using  two  cubes,  balls,  or  other  objects,)  separ- 
ate the  two  into  two  parts,  lead  the  children  to  see  that  the 
parts  are  equal,  and  apply  the  name  always  to  be  given 
to  any  one  of  two  such  parts — one-half.  The  pupils  are 
then  to  see  that  one  half  of  two  is  one,  and  that  two 
halves  of  two  are  two. 

One  (one  apple,)  is  then  to  be  separated  into  two  equal 
parts,  and  the  pupil  led  to  apply  the  term  one-half  to 
each  part.    The  class  are  then  to  see  and  state : 

One-half  and  one-half  are  one. 

One  less  one-half  is  one-half 

One  less  two  halves  is  naught. 

Two  one-halves  are  one. 

Ii)  one  there  are  two  halves. 

One-half  of  one  is  one-half. 


320  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

Applications. 

From   the  completion   of  the  relations  in   two  the 
pupils  are  to  enter  upon  a  study  of  its  applications. 
These  may  be  considered  of  two  kinds : — 

1.  Its    application  in  the  tables,  or  as   to  units  of 
measure. 

2.  Its  application  in  general. 

Under  the  first  the  children  would  be  taught  con- 
cretely in  connection  with  two,  all  the  units  of  the 
tables  that  involve  two,  as : 

Two  one-cents  are  two  cents. 

Two  pints  are  one  quart. 

A  sheet  folded  into  two  leaves  is  a  folio,  etc. 
.  The  printed  forms  of  the  new  words,  such  as  pint, 
quart,  cent,  folio,  etc.,  would  be  associated  with  their 
ideas  in  the  coexistent  reading  lessons,  and  the  coins,  as 
one  and  two  cent  pieces,  as  would  the  other  coins  in 
their  order,  would  form  the  basis  of  language  lessons, 
the  aim  of  which  would  be  to  develop  the  children's 
power  of  language  and  observation,  and  increase  their 
knowledge  of  the  coins  of  their  country,  by  conversa- 
tional lessons,  and  stories  concerning  their  appearance, 
composition,  where  and  how  the  materials  are  obtained, 
their  coinage,  etc. 

Thus,  as  before  mentioned,  would  the  various  exer- 
cises of  the  school,  if  organized,  supplement  each  other. 

Under  the  second,  the  pupils  would  be  required  to 
solve,  and  to  form  and  solve  miscellaneous  problems; 
as: — 

If  a  boy  buys  one  orange  one  day,  and  another  the 
next  day,  how  many  does  he  buy  ? 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  321 

If  a  man  has  two  apples,  and  wishes  to  give  them 
away,  giving  one  apple  to  each  boy,  to  how  many  boys 
can  he  give?  etc. 

The  work,  as  indicated  for  the  number  two,  repre- 
sents the  nature  of  the  work  on  the  numbers  from  one 
to  ten. 

The  units  of  the  various  tables,  and  their  relations  as 
involved  in  the  numbers  from  one  to  ten,  are: — 
1. 
One  cent. 
2. 
Two  one-cents  are  two  cents. 
Two  pints  are  one  quart. 
Two  reams  are  one  bundle. 
A  sheet  folded  into  two  leaves  is  a  folio. 

3. 
Three  feet  are  one  yard. 
Three  feet  are  one  pace. 
Three  miles  are  one  league. 
Three  one-cents  are  three  cents. 

4. 
Four  quarters  are  one  yard. 
Four  quarters  are  one  dollar. 
Four  inches  are  one  hand. 
Four  gills  are  one  pint. 
Four  pecks  are  one  bushel. 
Four  quarts  are  one  gallon. 
Four  weeks  are  one  month. 
Four  farthings  are  one  penny. 
A  sheet  folded  into  four  leaves  is  a  quarto. 


322  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

5. 

Five  one-cents  are  five  cents. 

6. 
Six  feet  are  one  fathom. 

7. 
Seven  days  are  one  week. 

8. 
Eight  quarts  are  one  peck. 
Eight  cord  feet  are  one  cord. 
A  sheet  folded  into  eight  leaves  is  an  octavo. 

9. 
Nine  square  feet  are  one  square  yard. 

10. 
Ten  mills  are  one  cent. 
Ten  cents  are  one  dime. 
Ten  dimes  are  one  dollar. 
Ten  dollars  are  one  eagle. 

SECOND   YEAR. 

The  second  year's  work  differs  from  the  first  in  the 
numbers  dealt  with ;  in  being  in  the  Stage  of  Imagina- 
tion ;  and  in  that  it  presents  the  practical  notation  for 
the  numbers  considered  in  the  first  and  second  years. 

Notation  considers  two  things : 

The  figures. 

The  arithmetical  sentences. 

The  figures  are  taught  just  as  other  words  are : — 

1.  Present  the  number  and  associate  it  with  its 
figure. 

2.  Point  to  the  figure  and  associate  it  with  its  num- 
ber. 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  323 

3.  Pass  in  the  association  from  numbers  to  figures. 

There  should  be  careful  drill  in  making  the  figures  on 
board  and  paper. 

In  teaching  the  notation  for  thought  in  number  there 
are  three  stages : — 

1.  To  obtain  the  notation  from  objects. 

2.  To  obtain  the  notation  from  problems ;  as,  If  a 
boy  has  three  apples  and  finds  two  more,  how  many 
has  he  then  ?  In  this  case  the  pupil  is  to  write, — 3  and 
2  are  5. 

3.  To  obtain  the  notation  from  the  oral  expression 
of  number  (abstract). 

For  example,  the  teacher  may  give  (orally)  3  and  4, 
when  the  pupil  is  to  write,  3  and  4  are  7. 

The  notation  is  obtained  from  objects  somewhat  as 
follows : — 

The  ieacher  presents  three  objects,  e.  g.,  cubes,  and 
after  a  slight  pause  one  more,  and  then  combines  them, 
asking  pupils  to  write  on  the  board,  or  slate,  what  they 
saw.     The  pupils  write,  3  and  1  are  4. 

In  like  manner  a  number  of  sentences  are  written. 
The  teacher  then  explains  the  use  of  +  for  and,  and  obtains 
a  number  of  sentences  in  which  +  is  used.  After  the 
pupils  thoroughly  understand  the  use  of  -f,  the  use  of 
=  for  are  is  explained. 

Sentences  in  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  divis- 
ion are  presented  in  the  same  general  way. 

The  units  of  the  various  tables,  and  their  relations  as 
involved  in  the  numbers  from  ten  to  twenty,  are : — 


324  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

12. 

12  inches  are  1  foot. 

12  pence  are  1  shilling.  . 

12  ounces  are  1  pound. 

12  signs  are  1  circle. 

12  things  are  1  dozen. 

12  months  are  1  year. 

12  dozen  are  1  gross. 

12  gross  are  1  great  gross. 

A  sheet  folded  in  12  leaves  is  a  12  mo.  or  a  duodecimo. 

16. 
A  sheet  folded  in  16  leaves  is  a  16  mo. 
16  drams  are  1  ounce. 
16  ounces  are  1  pound. 
16  cubic  feet  are  1  cord  foot. 

18 
18  inches  are  1  cubit. 

20. 
20  shillings  are  1  pound. 
20  cwt.  are  1  ton. 
20  things  are  1  score. 
20  quires  are  1  ream. 
20  grains  are  1  scruple. 

THIRD  YEAR. 

Numbers  in  the  third  year  (20  to  100)  are  treated  in 
the  same  general  manner  and  spirit  as  are  those  of  the 
second  year,  the  work  still  being  in  the  Stage  of  Imagin- 
ation. 

Theoretic  ideation  and  notation,  if  they  have  not  been 
taught  before,  are  presented  as  the  first  work. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


325 


In  considering  fractions  in  connection  with  the  whole  \ 

number  one  hundred^  the  idea  of  percentage  arises,  and  is  j 

to  be  treated.  ] 

The  following  illustration  and  exercises  will  indicate  \ 

to  some  extent  the  nature  of  the  work  :  j 


.2  and .3;  .4  —  .1;.4--  .2;  .9  --.7;  .7  -,-  .3;  .7  and  .07; 
.27  and  .5 ;  .6  -  .03;  .1 -- .01 ;  .8  ^  .07 ;  .1  of  .1 ;  .2  of  .1 ;  .3 
of  .7;. 5  of  .5. 

What  is  4  per  cent,  of  $40? 

8  per  cent,  of  $200? 

10  per  cent,  of  90  yards  ? 

12\  per  cent,  of  72  miles  ? 

20  per  cent,  of  a  cubic  yard  ? 

5  per  cent,  of  an  acre  ? 

What  per  cent  of  $35  is  $7  ? 

What  per  cent,  of  $28  is  $14? 

What  per  cent,  of  42  miles  is  21  miles  ? 

$6  is  20  per  cent,  of  what  number  of  dollars  ? 

40  rods  is  12  J  per  cent,  of  what  number  of  rods  ? 


326  THE  THEORY  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

If  4  qts.  of  grain  are  given  for  grinding  a  bu.,  what 
per  cent,  is  the  cost  of  grinding  ? 
1  fib.  4  oz.  is  25  per  cent,  of  what  ? 

There  is  nothing  in  fractions  hut  the  relations  of  whole 
numbers,  except  the  terms.     (Illustrate.) 

The  units  of  the  various  tables  and  their  relations  as 
involved  in  the  numbers  from  twenty  to  one  hundred 
are: 

24  gr.  are  1  pwt. 

24  hours  are  1  day. 

24  sheets  are  1  quire. 

24  things  are  2  dozen. 

27  cu.  ft.  are  1  cu.  yd. 

28  days  in  February. 

29  days  in  February. 

30  degrees  are  1  sign. 

30  days  in  April,  June,  September  and  November. 
30i  sq.  yd.  are  1  sq.  rd. 

31  days  in  January,  March,  July,  August,  October  and 
December. 

32  gills  are  1  gallon. 
32  quarts  are  1  bu. 

32  pounds  of  oats  are  1  bu. 

36  inches  are  1  yard. 

36  things  are  3  dozen. 

40  perches  are  1  rood. 

40  rods  are  1  furlong. 

48  things  are  4  dozen. 

56  pounds  of  corn,  rye  or  flax  seed  are  1  bu. 

60  pounds  of  wheat  or  clover  seed  are  1  bu. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  327 

60  seconds  are  1  minute. 

60  minutes  are  1  hour. 

60  minutes  are  1  degree.  ' 

60  geographical  miles  are  1  degree. 

60  things  are  6  dozen. 

72  things  are  6  dozen. 

84  things  are  7  dozen. 

96  things  are  8  dozen. 

100  pounds  are  1  hundred  weight. 

100  years  are  1  century. 

The  processes  of  addition  and  subtraction  in  this  year, 
and  also  the  processes  of  multiplication  and  division,  in 
the  fourth  year,  are  to  be  presented  and  explained  at 
first  concretely,  first  with  objects  present  to  the  senses, 
and  then  with  objects  present  to  the  imagination. 


This  process  requires  attention  to  the  following  points ; 

1.  The  object  of  the  process. 

2.  The  impossibility  of  adding  all  the  numbers  at 
one  step. 

3.  The  necessity  of  the  successive  steps  and  of  com- 
bining results. 

4.  The  division  for  this  purpose. 

5.  The  manner  of  combining  the  partial  results  in 
accordance  with  the  principle  of  numeration.  (Idea- 
tion.) 

6.  The  statement  of  the  rule,  and  its  illustration  by 
reference  to  the  steps  of  the  operation  itself. 

7.  Practice,  in  which  each  step  of  each  operation  is 
to  be  accounted  for  by  reference  to  the  rule. 


328  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

When  the  rule  is  familiar,  it  remains  only  to  grade  the 
practice  according  to  the  complexity  of  the  operation 
involved.     The  grading  consists  of  four  stages  : — 

a.  That  which  involves  the  expression  on  the 
slates  in  symbols  of  what  the  pupil  has  previously  done 
orally ;  as,  8+4+3=15. 

b.  That  which  involves  the  axiom  of  operation  by 
parts  but  no  change  of  denomination ;  as,  33+26=59. 

c.  That  in  which  the  change  of  denomination  in- 
volves the  principle  of  numeration,  (ideation)  and  the 
axiom  of  operation  by  parts;  as  37+46=83. 

d.  Exercises  involving  ciphers. 


SUBTRACTION. 


The  game  points  in  regard  to  explanation  and  grada- 
tion apply  to  subtraction. 

The  method  in  subtraction  is  either  that  which  in- 
volves a  change  of  minuend  alone,  depending  on  the 
principle  of  numerical  ideation ;  or  that  which  involves 
a  change  in  both  the  form  and  value  of  the  minuend  and 
subtrahend,  depending  on  the  axiom  that  the  difference 
of  two  numbers  is  not  changed  if  both  be  equally  in- 
creased. 

The  proofs  in  addition  and  subtraction  should  be 
given,  as  well  as  the  operations  themselves,  being  equal- 
ly valuable  as  mental  exercises. 

The  proof  of  addition  is  based  on  the  principle  that 
in  adding  a  series  of  numbers,  the  sum  should  be  the 
same,  in  whatever  order  the  series  is  added ;  and  that 
pf  subtraction  on  the  principle  that  what  is  subtracted 
from  a  number  and  what  remains  must  equal  the  whole. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  329 

MULTIPLICATION. 

Multiplication,  in  the  limited  conception,  should  be 
explained  by  addition,  and  its  object  shown  to  be  to 
find  what  the  addition  of  a  given  number  of  equal 
numbers  will  produce.  Its  relation  to  division  should 
be  clearly  set  forth,  also. 

The  table  should  be  constructed  objectively  and 
should  then  be  made  a  mental  habit  by  repetition.  It 
is  valuable  practice  to  extend  it  to  twenty  or  more. 

The  grading  of  exercises  should  be  as  follows : 

1.  Exercises  in  which  the  multiplier  consists  of  the 
units  in  succession. 

2.  Exercises  in  which  the  multiplier  consists  of  the 
tens  in  succession. 

3.  Exercises   in   which   the   multiplier  consists  of 
both  units  and  tens. 

In  multiplying  by  such  a  number  as  27,  the  2  should 
not  be  spoken  of  as  twenty  nor  as  two  tens,  for  that  is 
contrary  to  the  idea  of  notation,  and  only  complicates 
the  operation. 

Let  it  be  spoken  of  as  a  2,  and  afterward  by  recalling 
the  fact  that  it  is  tens,  the  denomination  of  the  product 
may  be  shown.  Success  in  dealing  with  such  cases 
depends  on  success  in  the  work  on  notation  and  the 
previous  steps  in  multiplication,  for  then  the  pupil  will 
be  able  to  perceive  in  how  far  the  multiplication  by  2 
tens  agrees  with  that  by  2  units,  and  in  how  far  it 
differs.  The  axiom  of  partial  operations  is  employed 
three  times  in  such  cases,  and  that  axiom  and  the  prin- 
ciple of  numeration  (ideation)  explain  the  entire  theory 
of  the  process. 


330  THE  THEORY   OP   THE   SCHOOL. 


Division,  according  to  the  less  comprehensive  defini- 
tion, should  be  explained  by  subtraction,  and  its  object 
shown  to  be  to  find  how  often  one  number  is  contained 
in  another ;  or  to  find  one  of  the  equal  parts  of  a  num- 
ber. Its  relation  to  multiplication  should  likewise  be 
indicated. 

The  principles  upon  which  the  process  depends  are 
that  of  partial  operations  and  that  of  numeration  (idea- 
tion.) 

Long  division  should  be  presented  before  short  divis- 
I  ion  because  short  division  is  an  elliptical  form  of  long 
division,  and  therefore  naturally  grows  out  of  it. 

In  commencing  with  long  division,  however^  small 
divisors,  such  as  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  should  be  used. 

The  exercises  should  be  graded  as  follows : 

1.  Those  where  the  partial  quotients  are  even  with- 
out involving  any  change  of  denomination ;  as,  84648-^2. 

2.  Those  in  which  change  of  denomination  is  in- 
volved. 

3.  Those  which  involve  ciphers. 

The  proofs  for  multiplication  and  division  should  be 
considered  for  the  reasons  given  under  subtraction. 

The  proof  for  multiplication  is  based  on  the  principle 
that  the  product  is  the  same  in  whatever  order  the  par- 
tial products  are  obtained,  and  that  for  division,  on  the 
principle  that  the  contained  number  multiplied  by  the 
number  of  times  it  is  contained,  will  give  the  containing 
number. 


THE    THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  331 


METHOD  IN  GEOGRAPHY. 


DEFINITION. 


PRINCIPLES. 

The  three  root  principles  in  the  subject  of  geography 
are: 

1.  Earth  and  man  are  mutually  adapted  to  each 
otheras  habitation  and  inhabitant.  (The  selective  prin- 
ciple as  to  subject-matter.) 

2.  The  earth  is  an  organism,  having  life  through 
contrast.     (The  directive  principle  in  presentation.) 

3.  Each  new  idea  is,  and  is  to  be  made  appear  to  be 
a  development  of  one  already  in  the  mind.  (This  prin- 
ciple is  not  peculiar  to  the  subject  of  geography.) 

MENTAL   FACULTIES  INVOLVED  AND  TRAINED. 

Elaborate  each  of  the  preceding  ideas. 

PURPOSE. 

The  first  and  most  important  purpose  in  teaching 
geography,  is  to  awaken  and  to  furnish  exercise  to  the 
mental  faculties. 

More  specifically,  the  purpose  is  primarily  to  develop 
the  imagination. 

It  should  also  be  the  aim  to  give  intellectual  and  moral 
breadth.     (How  does  geography  tend  to  do  this?) 

The  secondary  purpose  is  to  give  a  knowledge  of  the 
earth  as  an  organic  whole,  and  its  parts  in  their  rela- 
tions ;  to  give  a  general  knowledge  of  all  the  political 
diviBions  of  the  earth,  and  to  give  a  specific  knowledge 


332  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


of  the  pupil's  own  country,  and  four  or  five  others  of  the 
leading  countries  as  commercial  and  industrial  units. 

Geography  is  not  to  be  taught  for  the  sake  of  the 
geographical  knowledge,  but  for  the  sake  of  awakening 
and  exercising  the  mental  faculties,  and  giving  them  in- 
creased vigor  by  furnishing  material  for  their  exercise, 
and  afiording  opportunities  for  the  directing  and  train- 
ing of  them. 

In  this  use  and  not  in  its  facts,  lies  the  great  value  of 
the  subject  of  geography ;  though  the  facts  have  their 
value,  and  should  be  clearly  presented. 


THE  KNOWN. 


What  knowledge  have  children  upon  entering  school,  that 
is  geographical  or  related  to  geography  f 

When  a  child  enters  school  he  is  in  possession  of 
ideas,  sometimes  vague  and  incomplete,  sometimes  in- 
correct, concerning : — 

The  form,  size  and  position  of  the  earth,  its  daily  mo- 
tion, day  and  night,  the  seasons  and  their  succession, 
direction,  color,  form,  the  rising  of  smoke. 

Rain,  snow,  ice  and  dew ;  where  they  come  from ; 
where  they  go  to. 

Heat  and  cold,  and  their  effects ;  air,  the  boiling  of 
water. 

Clouds. 

Different  plants;  their  relations  to  heat,  moisture, 
man  and  animals.  • 

Different  animals ;  their  uses. 

Different  minerals ;  their  uses. 

Hill,  valley,  plain,  pond,  stream,  cape,  peninsula,  etc. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  333 

Different  kinds  of  soiL  earth-worms,  the  coral,  and 
their  effect. 

Different  means  of  communication,  riding  on  cars, 
vehicles,  etc.,  and  the  effect. 

Different  races  of  man. 

Different  nations  of  men. 

Cities ;  their  buildings,  streets,  governments. 

Different  religions. 

Education. 

Different  occupations. 

Pictorial  representation. 

The  difference  in  earth  and  water  in  receiving  and 
giving  off  heat. 

Classification  of  the  items  given  above  under : — 

1.  Mathematical  Georgraphy. 

2.  Physical  Geography. 

3.  Political  Geography. 

These  ideas  classified  would  be  as  follows : — 
Form,  size,  position  of  the  earth,  its  motion ; — day 
and  night; — the  seasons  and  their  succession; — direc- 
tion;— form; — streets; — pictorial  representation,  belong- 
ing to  TTiathematical  geography. 

Rain,  snow,  ice  and  dew,  where  they  come  from; 
where  they  go  to ; — heat  and  cold,  and  their  effects'; — 
clouds; — different  plants;  their  relations  to  heat  and 
moisture,  man  and  animals ; — different  animals,  their 
uses; — different  minerals;  their  uses; — hill,  valley,  pond, 
stream,  cape,  peninsula,  etc.; — different  kinds  of  soil ; 
earth-worms,  and  corals ; — different  races  of  man  ; — dif- 
ference in  earth  and  water  in  receiving  and  giving  off 


334  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

heat; — color; — the  rising  of  smoke ;  pictorial  representa- 
tion, belonging  to  physical  geography. 

Different  means  of  communication; — different  na- 
tions of  men;  cities;  their  buildings  and  governments; 
— different  religions  ; — education  ; — different  occupa- 
tions; pictorial  representation,  belonging  to  political 
geography. 

Through  what  sources  has  the  child  acquired  these  ideas  f 
(^Amplify.) 

What  is  the  attitude  of  his  mind  in  regard  to  them  ? 

The  attitude  of  the  child's  mind  to  this  accumulated 
knowledge  is  two-fold :  First,  much  of  the  knowledge 
is  the  latent  known.  In  the  second  place,  much  of  it 
has  become  common -place.  '  The  curiosity  excited  by 
novelty  has  become  somewhat  satisfied  by  familiarity 
with  the  outside  of  the  surrounding  phenomena,  or  has 
been  repressed  by  contact  with  ignorance,  and  com- 
mands to  cease  unwelcome  questions  '  The  child  is  by 
birth  a  naturalist.  His  love  of  nature  is  the  capital  in 
geography.  At  first  his  wondering  eyes  gather  material 
naturally.     Therefore : — 

1.  The  first  work  of  geography  is  to  flash  its  light 
across  the  latent  known  and  turn  the  child's  gaze  upon 
it. 

2.  The  second  is  to  re-awaken  his  interest  in  the 
common-place  known. 

This  is  to  be  done  by  opening  up  to  the  pupil  in  the 
beginning  all  that  is  strange,  picturesque,  and  wonder- 
ful in  the  realm  of  which  his  acquired  ideas  form  a 
part.  ^ 


THE  THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  335 

This  can  never  he  done  by  chaining  his  mind  down 
during  the.  first  year  or  more  of  geography,  to  a  study  of 
the  objects  of  the  school-room  and  how  to  represent  them^ 
the  school'yardy  township^  county^  and  state,  and  how  to 
map  them. 

The  child  must  see  the  earth  first  in  its  most  enchant- 
ing guise,  and  through  mediums  which  are  perfectly 
familiar — pictures  and  language — so  that  the  mediums 
shall  be  in  the  back -ground.  If  he  is  set  in  the  very 
beginning  to  the  production  of  a  new  means  of  repre- 
sentation— the  map — the  tendency  is  for  it  to  become 
all-important  in  his  eyes,  and  thus,  in  a  measure,  close 
them  to  that  which  it  represents.  It  is  a  reversal  of  the 
maxim — "  The  thing  signified  before  the  sign." 

Into  what  knowledge  do  the  ideas  possessed  by  the  child 
unfold  or  develop  in  the  geography  work  f 

Under  the  influence  of  proper  geography  work,  the 
subject  of  geography  appears  to  the  child  as  the  mere 
expansion  or  development  of  those  ideas  related  to  the 
subject  which  he  possessed  when  he  entered  school. 

For  example,  the  child's  idea  of  the  form  of  the 
earth,  whether  correct  or  incorrect,  is  that  out  of  which 
grow  considerations  of — reasons  for  his  belief  and  their 
application  to  the  apparent  and  the  real  case;  clear  ideas 
of  the  form,  comparative  and  actual  (spheroid) ;  proofs 
— Magellan's  voyage,  appearance  and  disappearance  of 
ships  at  sea,  appearance  of  objects  on  land  to  incoming 
ships,  the  circular  horizon,  and  its  increase  on  ascent, 
the  shadow  cast  on  the  moon ;  illustration — movement 
of  toy  ships  on  globe,  toy  man  on  the  surface  represented 


336  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

by  sand  on  the  curved  surface  of  a  molding  board,  mod- 
elling in  clay  of  the  spheroid,  a  piece  of  paper  with  a 
round  hole  in  it  placed  on  a  large  globe,  etc. 

The  inadequate  idea  of  the  earth's  size  unfolds  into 
definite  ideas  concerning — circumference  at  the  equator, 
diameter  at  the  equator  and  between  the  poles,  circum- 
ference in  time — railroad  trip  of  more  than  a  month  at 
the  rate  of  30  miles  an  hour,  with  no  stops. 

The  vague  idea  as  to  the  earth's  position  is  to  unfold 
into  clear  ideas  in  regard  to  its  position  by  reference  to 
pictures  of  globes  floating  in  the  air ;  other  earths— the 
evening  star  and  the  moon — magnet,  balls,  balloons, 
birds,  kites,  etc.,  in  the  air. 

From  the  idea  possessed  as  to  the  motion  of  the  earth 
or  the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun,  the  development  is, 
through  illustration  afforded  by  riding  upon  the  cars,' 
and  by  comparison  of  the  size  of  earth  and  sun,  to  the 
rotation  of  the  earth. 

The  knowledge  of  day  and  night  will  lead  to  the  idea 
of  rotation,  axis,  poles,  and  variation  of  length  of  day 
and  night. 

Illustration  work. — Rotation  with  axis  vertical,  hori- 
zontal and  oblique,  using  card-board  disc  or  day  circle ; 
the  finding  of  sunrise,  noon,  sunset,  and  midnight  for 
given  places ;  place  ball  or  globe  in  position  for  northern 
midsummer,  mark  with  dots  the  places  for  sunrise  and 
sunset,  and  then  rotate,  having  the  pupils  observe  whether 
the  dots  are  longer  in  the  light  or  dark.  (Read  in  con- 
nection "  Agoonack  "  of  "  The  Seven  Little  Sisters,"  and 
"  Bidding  the  Sun  Good  night  in  Lapland,"  by  Joy  Alli- 
son); hold  a  crayon  on  the  farthest  point  of  the  surface 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  337 

beyond  tl?e  North  Pole  that  the  sunlight  reaches,  and 
rotate,  keeping  the  crayon  in  position — have  the  pupil 
tell  about  the  day  at  all  places  within  the  circle  formed 
by  the  crayon.  In  like  manner,  place  the  ball  for  the 
other  seasons  and  show  results  as  to  day  and  night. 

The  ideas  that  the  child  already  possesses  in  regard  to 
the  seasons  and  their  succession,  are  to  develop  into 
clear  ideas  concerning  the  revolution  of  the  earth,  the 
zones,  the  orbit,  climate  and  its  relation  to  vegetation. 

These  ideas  are  to  be  obtained  by  reference  to  the- 
pupil's  experience,  and  employment  of  such  devices  as 
placing  a  ball  or  globe  on  a  table  to  represent  the  sun, 
and  another  in  the  hands  of  a  pupil  to  represent  the 
earth.  The  pupil  by  holding  the  ball  in  its  proper  posi- 
tion, rotating  it  and  moving  with  it  to  represent  the  revo- 
lution, can  show  the  changes  of  light  and  heat,  and  the 
inferences  as  to  the  most  obvious  effects  will  follow. 
This  may  also  be  shown  by  a  candle  and  a  ball,  and,  of 
course,  by  scientific  apparatus,  if  it  be  possessed. 

In  like  manner  the  development  of  each  of  the  famil- 
iar ideas  could  be  shown. 

THE   MORE  COMMON    DEFECTS   IN    PRESENTING   THE    SUBJECT. 

1.  It  is  made  too  largely  a  verbal  memory  study. 

2.  Neglect  in  use  of  the  globe. 

3.  Study  of  facts  as  isolated  to  too  great  an  extent. 

4.  Tendency  toward  national  conceit  and  narrow- 
ness through  the  early  and  continuous  study  of  one's 
own  region,  before  grounds  of  comparison  are  furnished 
by  the  study  of  the  earth  as  a  whole,  and  of  other 
countries. 

23 


338  THE   THEORY   OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

5.  Subordinating  the  map  to  the  text  on  points  of 
which  they  both  treat. 

6.  Not  guarding  sufficiently  against  the  tendency 
on  the  part  of  the  pupils  to  make  the  map  and  text  the 
end. 

7.  Teaching  the  hemispheres  from  but  one  stand- 
point instead  of  from  three — the  eastern  and  western, 
northern  and  southern,  land  and  water. 

8.  Teaching  the  continents  only  as  surfaces. 

9.  The  failure  to  distinguish  between  the  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  cities  of  the  earth  in  which  the  commer- 
cial and  industrial  relations  are  strongest,  and  which 
should  therefore  require  the  preponderance  of  treat- 
ment, and  those  whose  importance  is  arbitrary,  political 
or  local,  and  which  therefore  require  less  exhaustive 
study. 

10.  Failure  to  sufficiently  utilize  the  experience  of 
the  pupils. 

11.  Presenting  the  different  stages  of  the  work  in 
an  unnatural  order,  e.  g.,  the  presentation  of  political 
divisions  before  natural  divisions,  winds,  currents,  etc. 

12.  Presenting  the  symbol  before  the  reality — the 
sign  before  the  thing. 

13.  Neglect  of  map  drawing,  one  of  the  very  best 
means  of  giving  clear  conceptions  of  the  various  regions 
on  the  ground  that  it  takes  too  much  time. 

OUTLINE   OF  WORK, 
FIKST  YEAR. 

The  geographical  threads  of  the  first  year  are  lessons 
on: 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  339 

Place,  form,  drawing,  size,  distance,  direction,  and 
color. 

In  the  lessons  on  place^  work  would  be  given  illustra- 
ting the  use  of  such  expressions  as,— on,  above,  before, 
between,  under,  below,  behind,  around,  etc.,  right-hand 
corner,  left-hand  corner,  front  right-hand  corner,  back 
left-hand  corner,  middle  of  right  side,  etc. 

In  such  work  the  teacher  would  place  objects  and  the 
pupil  imitate ;  the  teacher  place  and  the  pupil  describe  ; 
the  teacher  place  and  the  pupil  draw ;  the  teacher  dic- 
tate and  the  pupil  place ;  the  teacher  disarrange  and  the 
pupil  place  from  memory,  etc. 

In  the  work  on  color,  form,  size,  etc.,  the  pupils  would 
be  led  to  speak  of  the  color,  form,  size,  place  on  the 
earth,  etc.,  of  animals,  plants,  minerals,  etc. 

Thus,  of  the  tiger :  its  colors  would  be  spoken  of  and 
represented;  its  form  and  size  shown  on  the  board  and 
in  pictures  and  by  reference  to  tigers  that  the  pupils 
may  have  seen ;  then  the  region  that  it  inhabits  would 
be  spoken  of,  its  distance  and  direction  from  the  pupil's 
own  region  indicated,  etc.  In  a  similar  way  the  tiger- 
lily,  magnolia,  lead,  gold,  etc.,  would  be  briefly  touched 
upon,  in  connection  with  the  lessons  on  place,  form, 
color,  size,  etc. 

SECOND  YEAR. 

In  the  second  year  the  geographical  threads  are  les- 
sons on : — 

1.  Animals: 

That  live  on  the  lartd;  in  the  water ;  in  the  air. 

That  live  in  hot  parts  of  the  earth;  in  cold  parts;  in 
forests;  in  plains;  in  deserts;  on  mountainSy  etc. 


340  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

2.  Vegetation — Same  as  animals. 

3.  People :     (By  stories  and  readings.) 
Their  kinds  of  homes. 

What  they  wear,  eat,  and  do. 

The  animals  they  use. 

The  distance  and  direction  of  their  homes  from  the 
pupil's  home. 

(See  The  Seven  Little  Sisters  ;  Each  and  All ;  Aunt  Martha's 
Corner  Cupboard,  or  Stories  about  Tea,  Coflfee,  Sugar,  etc.; 
Little  Lucy's  Wonderful  Globe  ;  Little  People  of  Asia  ;  Johon- 
not's  Natural  History  Series ;  etc.) 

THIRD  YEAR. 

(It  is  not  the  thought  that  all  the  work  that  is  outlined  in  any 
one  year's  work  should  be  taken  during  that  year.  The  out- 
line indicates  the  order,  method,  and  topics  from  which  to 
select.) 

AIM. 

1.  Principal.^To  open  up  to  the  child  the  wonder- 
ful and  picturesque  features  of  the  subject. — To  guard 
against  making  the  map,  definition,  and  text,  all-import- 
ant.— To  give  a  general  conception  of  the  earth  as  a 
whole  without  the  use  of  a  map. 

2.  Incidental — Extended  ideas  of  distance,  direction, 
means  of  communication,  vegetation,  animals,  and  of 
the  different  peoples  and  their  habits. 

NATURE   OF    THE  WORK. 

The  wbrk  is  based  upon  the  idea  that  every  region  of 
the  earth  is  composed  of  some  or  all  of  the  few  geographical 
elements,  (about  thirteen  in  number)  :  as,  hill,  lake,  pen- 
insula, etc.,  each  of  these  having  its  essential  marks  or 
elements  (as  the  base,  slope  and  summit  of  a  hill),  which 


THE  THEORY  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  341 

essential  elements  may  appear  in  various  types,  e.  g.,  a 
summit  may  be  flat,  rounded,  or  pointed ;  a  slope,  wooded, 
rocky,  grassy,  etc. 

The  purpose  of  the  year's  work  is  to  be  accomplished 
by  giving  clear,  rich  and  full  conceptions  of  the  various 
geographical  elements ;  so  that  a  geographical  term,  as 
^^ peninsula^^  shaM  call  up  in  the  mind  of  the  child — not 
the  conception  as  derived  from  a  single  example,  but  as 
gained  from  a  number  of  instances  sufficient  to  present 
the  element  in  its  various  types. 

In  order  that  the  purpose  as  stated  above  may  be  best 
accomplished  the  various  examples  necessary  to  illus- 
trate the  different  types  are  selected  from  as  many  dif- 
ferent regions  of  the  earth's  surface  as  possible. 

In  the  use  of  the  molding  sand  and  drawings  as  means 
of  making  clear  the  geographical  elements,  to  insure 
that  the  pupils  shall  look  through  the  molding  sand  and 
the  map  to  the  real  objects  which  these  represent,  pre- 
liminary work  of  two  kinds  is  necessary. 

1.  Work  in  which  teacher  and  pupils  mold  in  sand, 
(common  molding  sand)  and  draw  in  horizontal  and  in 
vertical  outline,  (profile)  regions  with  which  the  pupils 
are  familiar ;  all  knowing  in  each  case  what  region  is 
being  represented. 

This  work  may  be  pursued  for  several  weeks. 

2.  Work  in  which  the  teacher  molds  in  sand,  and 
draws  in  horizontal  and  vertical  outline  regions  with 
which  the  class  is  familiar;  the  pupils,  however,  not 
knowing  before  hand  what  region  is  to  be  represented, 


342  THE   THEOEY   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

but  being  required  to  determine  the  region  through  the 
representation. 

Two  or  three  weeks  may  be  consumed  in  this  kind  of  work. 

This  preliminary  work  having  been  completed,  the 
pupil  is  prepared  to  enter  upon  the  study  of  the  various 
geographical  elements. 

The  work  with  any  one  geographical  element  consists 
of  three  parts : 

1.  Study  of  the  example  in  the  home  region. 

2.  Imaginary  journeys  to  examples  in  foreign  re- 
gions. 

3.  Study  of  examples  selected  in  foreign  region. 
On  the  supposition  that  the  lake  is  the  element  to  be 

considered,  and  that  its  various  types  are  adequately 
represented  by  the  lake  or  pond  in  the  home  region,  and  . 
by  Lake  George  in  North  America,  Lake  Titicaca  in 
South  America,  Lake  Geneva  in  Europe,  Lake  Balkash 
in  Asia,  Lake  Tchad  in  Africa,  and  Lake  Eyre  in  Aus- 
tralia, the  work  would  be  of  the  following  nature : 

a.  If  practicable,  the  pupils  should  observe  the 
lake  or  pond  in  the  home  region,  noting  its  essential 
characteristics  and  their  types ;  and  should  mold  it  in 
sand,  while  it  is  before  them. 

b.  Mold  from  memory. 

c.  Describe  orally. 

d.  Describe  in  writing. 

e.  Draw  in  horizontal  and  vertical  outline. 

The  foregoing  work  on  the  example  in  the  home 
region  having  been  completed,  the  pupil  is  prepared  to 
enter  upon  the  second  kind  of  work — the  imaginary 
journey. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  343 

In  the  imaginary  journey  the  pupil  should  notice 
carefully  the  distance,  direction,  means  of  communica- 
tion, the  general  character  of  the  intervening  surface, 
the  habits  and  industries  of  the  people,  etc. 

When  the  pupil  has  been  brought,  by  means  of  the 
imaginary  journey,  to  the  first  example  of  the  element 
in  foreign  regions  which  has  been  selected,  (in  this  case 
Lake  George)  the  teacher  should  make  his  conception 
of  the  element  as  vivid  as  possible  by  pictures  and  de- 
scriptions. 

When  this  has  been  accomplished  the  pupil  may 
occasionally  be  required, 

a.  To  mold  the  example. 

b.  To  describe  it  both  orally  and  in  writing. 

c.  To  draw  it  in  horizontal   and  vertical  outline. 
When  the  work  has  been  completed  to  this  point,  the 

pupil  is  to  return  to  the  home  region  either  by  the  same 
or  a  different  route. 

He  is  next  to  make  an  imaginary  journey  to  the  next 
example  of  the  element  in  foreign  regions — (Lake  Titi- 
caca) — noticing  the  same  things  during  the  journey  and 
studying  the  example  in  the  sameway.  Returning  to 
the  hom  e  region,  as  before,  either  by  the  same  or  by  a 
different  route,  he  proceeds  to  study  in  the  same  manner 
all  the  examples  selected  as  necessary  to  give  a  full  and 
vivid  conception  of  this  geographical  element. 

Such  work  as  that  indicated  in  relation  to  the  lake, 
should  be  pursued  with  each  of  the  remaining  geo- 
graphical elements ;  the  treatment  of  examples  in  foreign 
regions  being  obviously  less  exhaustive  than  that  of  the  exam- 
pie  in  the  home  region. 


344  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

Supposing  the  hill  to  be  the  element  selected  to  begin 
with,  the  general  order  of  presentation  would  be  as  fol- 
lows: 

1.  The  Hill. 

a.  Work  as  indicated  with  the  lake. 

b.  The  hill  region. 

c.  The  expansion  of  the  hill  into  the  mountain. 

2.  The  mountain. 

a.  Work  as  indicated  with  the  lake. 

b.  Combination. 

(1.)  Into  the  range. 

(2.)  Ranges  into  the  system. 

3.  The  Valley. 

a.  Work  same  as  indicated  for  the  lake. 

b.  Extension  of  valley  into  the  plain. 

4.  The  Plain. 

a.  Work  same  as  with  the  lake. 

b.  Elevation   of   the    plain  into    table-land    or 
plateau. 

5.  The  Table-land,  or  Plateau, 
a.  Work  same  as  with  lake. 

6.  The  Spring. 

a.  Work  as  indicated  for  the  lake. 

b.  Extension  of  the  spring  into  the  streamlet. 

7.  The  Streamlet. 

a.  Same  as  with  the  lake. 

b.  Expansion  of  streamlet  into  river. 

8.  The  River. 

a.  Same  as  with  lake. 

b.  Formation  of  river-system. 

c.  Expansion  of  river  into  the  ocean.     (Atlantic.) 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  345 

9.  The  Lake. 

a.  Work  indicated  before. 

b.  Expansion  of  lake  into  ocean.     (Pacific.) 

10.  The  Cape. 

a.  Same  as  indicated  for  the  lake. 

b.  Extension  of  cape  into  peninsula. 

11.  The  Peninsula. 

a.  Same  as  with  lake. 

b.  Showing  isthmus  from 'the  part  of  the  penin- 
sula which  connects  with  the  main  body  of  the  land. 

12.  The  Isthmus. 

a.  Same  as  with  lake. 

13.  The  Island. 

a.  Work  as  indicated  for  lake. 

b.  Island  group. 

14.  Gulf  or  Bay. 

a.  Same  as  with  lake. 
•    b.  Extension  of  the  gulf  into  the  inland  sea. 

15.  The  Inland  Sea. 

a.  Same  as  with  lake. 

b.  The  connection  of  the  inland  sea  with  gulf  or 
bay,  forming  the  strait. 

16.  The  Strait. 

a.  Same  as  indicated  for  lake. 
In  connection  with  the  foregoing,  the  pupils  may  re- 
ceive elementary  ideas  of  climate,  productions,  inhabi- 
tants of  various  regions,  means  of  communication, 
cities;  but  this  work  should  be  incidental,  and  limited 
to  those  regions  which  have  been  selected  to  give  full 
conceptions  of  the  various  geographical  elements.  The 
following  outline  will  suggest  the  nature  of  the  work  : — 


346  THE   THEORY   OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

1.  Climate. 

a.  The  Spring  Day. 

(1.)  Comparative  length  of  day  and  night. 

(2.)  Variations  of  heat  and  moisture,  or  the 
combinations  of  the  elements  of  climate. 

(3.)  The  effects  of  their  combination  as  found 
in  the  spring  day  upon  productions  and  inhabitants. 

b.  The  Summer  Day. 

(1.)  and  (2.)  Same  as  for  Spring  Day. 
(3.)  The  effect  of  the  combination  as  found  in 
the  summer  day  upon  the  productions  and  inhabitants. 
(4.)  Merged  into  the  tropical  day  and  season. 

c.  The  Autumn  Day. 

(1.)  and  (2.)  Same  as  for  Spring  Day. 
(3.)  The  effects  of  the  combination  as  found  in 
the  autumn  day  upon  inhabitants  and  productions. 

d.  The  Winter  Day. 

(1.)  and  (2.)  Same  as  in  Spring  Day. 
(3.)  The  effects  of  the  combination  as  found  in 
the  winter  day  upon  productions  and  inhabitants. 

(4.)  Merged  into  the  frigid  day  and  season. 

2.  Productions, 
a.  Minerals. 

(1.)  In  home  region. 

(a.)  Kinds. 

(b.)  Appearance. 

(c.)  How  obtained. 

(d.)  Use. 
(2.)  In  other  regions. 

(a.),  (b.),  (c.)  and  (d.)  same  as  in  home  re- 
gion. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  347 

(e.)  Comparison  as  to  kind  and  use. 
(f.)  Generalization. 

b.  Vegetation. 

(1.)  Of  home  region. 

(a.)  Appearance. 

(b.)  Use. 

(c.)  Adaptation  of  soil  and  climate  to  vege- 
tation. 

(2.)  Of  other  regions. 

(a.)  and  (b.)  Same  as  in  home  region. 

(c.)  Inference  as  to  soil  and  climate. 

c.  Animals. 

(1.)  Of  home  region, 
(a.)  Wild, 
(b.)  Domestic. 

(1.')  Foreign. 
(2.')  Native, 
(c.)  Appearance, 
(d.)  Habits. 
(e.)  Uses. 

(f.)  Adaptation  of   climate   and  region   to 
habits  and  uses. 

(2.)  Of  other  regions, 
(a.),  (b.),  (c),  (d.)  and  (e.)  Same  as  under 
home  region. 

(  f.)  Inference  as  to  region  and  climate. 
3.  Inhabitants, 
a.  Of  home  region. 
(1.)  Races. 

(2.)  Influence  of  climate  and  region  upon  mode 
of  life,  as  to : — 


348  THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

(a.)  Occupations, 
(b.)  Habitations, 
(c.)  Food, 
(d.)  Clothing. 
b.  Of  other  regions. 

(1.)  and  (2.)  with  (a.),  (b.),  (c),  (d.),  same  as 
under  home  region. 

4.  Means  of  communication, 
a.  Of  home  region. 
(1.)  By  land. 

(a.)  Natural — Those  possessing  the   motive 
power  within  themselves  and  using  as  passage-ways : — 
(1.')  Roads. 
(2.')  Bridges, 
(b.)  Artificial. — Those    not    possessing    the 
motive  power   within   themselves,  and  using  passage- 
ways, 

d.')  On  the  surface. 
'  (2.')  Above  the  surface. 
(3.')  Beneath  the  surface, 
(c.)  Objects  communicated. 
(1.')  Material. 

(2')  Immaterial,  or  thought. 
(2.)  By  water, 
(a.)  Natural. — Those  using  as  motive  power 
the  currents  of  the  streams  and  passing  on  the  water. 

(b.)  Artificial. — Those  employing  as  motive 
power  forces  other  than  the  current  and  passing, 
(!.')  On  the  water. 
(2/)  Under  the  water, 
(c.)  Objects  communicated. 


THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  349 

(1/)  Material. 

(2/)  Immaterial,  or  Thought, 
b.  Of  other  regions. 

Same  as  under  home  region. 
5.  Cities. 

a.  The  Village. 

(1.)  Work  as  indicated  for  the  lake  under  geo- 
graphical elements. 

(2.)  Expansion*  of  the  village  into  the  city. 

b.  The  City. 

Comparison  of  the  various  types  of  cities  met  with  in 
the  study  of  the  geographical  elements. 

IDEAS   INCIDENTALLY   ACQUIRED. 

Although  this  year's  work  does  not  deal  with  locality, 
yet  the  pupil  will  necessarily  become  somewhat  familiar 
with  the  general  position  of  countries,  together  with 
their  names  and  those  of  their  remarkable  features. 

Thus,  in  listening  to  a  description  of  rivers,  as  the 
Amazon  or  the  Hudson,  interest  fixes  their  names  in 
memory  so  that  they  are  familiar  when,  in  the  course  of 
their  later  work,  their  position  is  learned. 

Likewise,  in  studying  animals  or  vegetation,  the  pupil 
associates  the  countries  with  these:  Africa,  with  the 
lion ;  China,  with  tea,  etc. 

If  in  the  general  lessons  of  the  school,  the  following 
three  lines  of  work,  among  others,  are  pursued,  as  sup- 
plementary to  the  second  year's  work,  they  will  furnish 
valuable  assistance  in  rendering  more  vivid  the  pupil's 
conception  of  the  regions  described  in  the  geography 
work : — 


350  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

1.  One  upon  the  lion,  elephant,  camel,  tiger,  wolf, 
bear,  hyena,  kangaroo,  buffalo,  reindeer,  dog,  serpent, 
whale,  shark,  eagle,  ostrich,  vulture,  etc. 

2.  Another  upon  the  palm,  olive,  breadfruit,  vine, 
cotton-plant,  tea-plant,  coffee-tree,  sugar-cane,  rice,  maize, 
cinnamon,  cedar,  mahogany,  etc. 

3.  A  third  upon  artirdes  of  food,  clothing  and  build- 
ing. 

In  the  course  of  these  lessons*  the  principal  countries 
would  evidently  be  noticed  so  often  that  the  pupils 
would,  of  necessity,  accumulate  a  considerable  fund  of 
ideas  concerning  each. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

During  the  work  of  this  year,  the  only  illustrations  to 
be  used  other  than  those  previously  mentioned,  are 
pictures  of  the  objects  dealt  with  in  the  general  lessons, 
and  pictures  of  scenes  typical  of  countries. 

In  accord  with  this  thought  the  teacher  would  present 
pictorial  representations  somewhat  as  follows : — 

Arabia,  by  a  desert  scene  exhibiting  the  general  features 
of  the  desert  and  sky,  the  caravan  as  a  whole,  the  camel, 
and  the  Arab  himself,  in  his  usual  costume. 

EgypU  by  its  river,  pyramids,  and  inhabitant,  engaged 
in  his  usual  avocation,  etc. 

Only  a  limited  supply  of  such  illustrations  is  furnished 
by  the  text-books.  The  teacher  should,  therefore,  make 
collections  of  pictorial  illustrations  of  natural  features; 
animal,  vegetable  and  mineral  productions;  buildings, 
manufactories  and  processes  of  manufacturing ;  repre- 
sentative men  of  different  nationalities ;  cities ;  bird's 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  351 

eye  views,  etc.  These  should  be  divided  on  the  basis 
of  continent,  and  then  subdivided  on  the  basis  of 
country,  region,  etc.,  and  kept  separate. 

Harper's  Magazine  and  Weekly,  and  the  Century  Magazine 
are  among  the  richest  sources  of  such  illustrations. 

Number  1,370  of  the  Weekly  contains  views  of  "  The  Funeral 
of  a  Little  Waif,"  in  Paris  ;  "  The  Fish  Hatching  at  Cold  Spring, 
Long  Island  ;"  **  Prince  GortchakofF;"  "  Mount  ^tna,  Sicily  ;" 
"  Interior  of  a  Southern  Cotton  Press  by  night,"  and  "  Sketches 
in  Cairo." 

Number  1,390  of  the  Weekly  contains  views  of  "  Coney 
Island,"  and  the  "  Louisville  Exposition." 

1,391,  views  of  scenery  at  "  Grand  Rapids,"  of  "Oyster  and 
Clam  Fisheries,"  of  "  Sands  Point,  Long  Island,"  and  views  from 
"  Sandy  Hook." 

The  Monthly  for  June,  1877,  contains  "  Scenes  in  the  Vicinity 
of  the  Androscoggin  Lakes,"  (17.)  "The  Wheeler  Survey  in 
Nevada,"  (10.)  "Gibraltar,"  (3.)  "Representations  of  Birds' 
Nests,"  (3). 

Scribner's  Monthly  (now  the  Century)  for  November,  1876, 
contains  views  of  "  Hartford,  Conn,"  (38.)  "  Pictures  from 
Rome,"  (14.)  "Furniture,"  (19.) 

These  numbers,  selected  at  random,  indicate  the  value  of 
such  illustrations  when  divided  and  subdivided  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  be  available  for  systematic  use  in  studying  the  various 
geographical  regions. 

(See  for  collateral  reading— parts  of  Near  Home  and  Far  Off; 
Scribner's  Geographical  Reader;  Our  World,  No.  1,  by  Hall; 
Seven  Little  Sisters  ;  Each  and  All.) 

IDEA   OF    THE   MAP. 

At  this  stage  the  pupil  is  to  be  led  to  comprehend  th^ 
idea  of  the  mapj  by  a  series  of  lessons  upon  the  school- 
room and  its  furniture,  the  school  yard,  etc.,  then  to 


352  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

study  by  means  of  it  the  earth  in  the  order  so  generally 
advocated,  viz.,  the  state ;  the  group  of  states ;  the  United 
States ;  the  continent,  etc.;  or  to  pursue  the  method  indi- 
cated in  the  work  as  outlined  in  the  following  years. 

FOURTH  YEAR. 
AIM. 

To  train  the  mind  by  giving  a  clear  structural  concep- 
tion of  the  earth  by  means  of  representation:  i.  e.,  globe, 
map  of  the  earth  as  a  whole,  maps  of  parts  of  the  earth, 
moldings,  drawings,  etc. 

STEPS. 

1.  Consideration  of  the  form. 

The  work  under  this  point  should  be  somewhat  of  the 
following  nature : 

a.  Obtain  the  pupil's  opinions  in  regard  to  the 
shape  of  the  earth  and  the  reasons  for  such  opinions. 

b.  Discuss  the  question  whether  a  body  having 
the  characteristics  which  he  presents  as  reasons  for  his 
opinion,  could  be  flat ;  also  if  it  could  be  round. 

c.  Obtain  if  possible,  if  not,  give  familiar  proofs 
of  the  earth's  form,  such  as  the  following : — 

(1.)  The  earth  always  casts  a  circular  shadow. 

(2.)  Objects  which  are  out  of  sight  to  one 
standing  on  the  surface  may  be  seen  from  an  elevation. 

(3.)  Of  an  approaching  ship,  the  masts  may 
be  seen  before  the  hull,  etc. 

2.  Presentation  of  lines  of  latitude  and  longitude. 
The  steps  to  be  taken  in  dealing  with  this  subject  are: 

a.  To  explain  the  terms  literally. 

b.  To  show  the  necessity  for  the  lines. 

c.  To  teach  the  pupils  how  to  construct  the  lines. 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  353 

A  good  piece  of  apparatus  to  use  in  presenting  these 
ideas,  is  a  small  black  ball.  If  a  dot  be  placed  upon 
the  ball  with  chalk  and  the  pupils  be  asked  to  locate  it, 
it  will  soon  become  evident  that  sufficient  data  lor  its 
exact  location  are  wanting. 

If  dots  are  now  placed  upon  the  ball  in  proper  posi- 
tions to  represent  the  poles,  and  circles  are  drawn 
through  these  and  numbered,  the  pupils  will  see  that 
these  aid  to  a  great  extent  in  locating  the  dot,  but  that 
something  is  still  wanting  to  make  the  location  definite. 

If,  in  a  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the 
circles  already  drawn,  a  circle  be  drawn,  midway  be- 
tween the  two  points  selected  to  represent  the  poles,  and 
circles  parallel  to  this  be  drawn  between  it  and  the 
poles,  and  numbered,  it  can  be  shown  that  the  means  for 
locating  the  dot  are  now  complete. 

The  streets  of  a  city  also  form  a  good  means  of  illus- 
tration of  lines  of  latitude  and  longitude. 

3.  Explanation  of  the  globe  as  a  representation  of  the 
earth  as  a  whole. 

4.  Explanation  by  means  oj  the  globe,  of  the  map  of 
the  earth  as  a  whole. 

5.  Air. 

a.  Position.  \ 

b.  Composition. 

In  treating  of  the  composition  of  air,  it  is  to  be  made 
to  appear  that  of  the  four  elements — Oxygen,  Nitrogen, 
Carbonic  acid  gas,  and  vapor,  the  most  important  in  re- 
lation to  the  subject  of  geography,  is  the  vapor,  and 
that  Carbonic  acid  gas  is  second  in  importance. 

c.  Manner  of  heating. 


356  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

avoided.  Every  thing  that  can  be,  is  to  be  made  pal- 
pably evident  by  illustrationj  analogy,  observation  and 
experiment.  For  example,  in  treating  of  the  different 
degrees  of  heat  in  the  atmosphere  due  to  the  direct  and 
reflected  rays  of  the  sun,  refer  to  the  stove,  the  wall,  and 
the  heating  of  the  intervening  space. 

In  teaching  that  heated  air  rises  and  that  this  rising 
causes  lateral  currents,  call  attention  to  what  may  be 
observed  at  a  register,  a  fire  place  or  over  a  slab  of  heated 
iron. 

The  expansion  of  heated  air  may  be  observed  in  the 
popping  of  corn,  baking  of  apples,  etc. 

The  difference  in  the  rapidity  with  which  earth  and 
water  receive  and  give  off  heat,  may  be  shown  by  observ- 
ing buckets  filled  with  each,  and  exposed  to  the  sun,  at 
noon,  and  again  sometime  after  sunset. 

The  aim  is  to  be  to  awaken  an  intelligent  appreciation 
of  what  is  already  known  in  part  by  rote,  or  daily  seen 
by  eyes  that  see  not,  or  daily  done  but  not  understood, 
and  to  connect  it  by  its  innumerable  links  with  the  un- 
known. The  materials  presented  are  to  be  used  as  an 
exercise  ground  for  thought.  To  a  degree  it  is  dealing 
with  the  latent  known  and  the  answers  are,  in  part, 
theoretically  in  the  pupils'  minds  already,  and  the  ob- 
ject is  to  awaken  thought;  to  cause  them  to  sift  and 
rearrange  their  ideas ;  to  implant  new  desires  and  new 
capacities  for  satisfying  desires;  to  give,  not  so  much 
knowledge,  as  power  to  learn  and  to  observe. 

Unless  this  habit  of  intelligent  observation  is  implanted, 
the  horizon  will  be  close  about  the  pupil  and  he  will  be 
as  Schopenhauer  says   of  one  without  a  knowledge  of 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  357 

Latin,  "as  a  man  walking  in  a  beautiful  region  in  a 
fog." 

The  pupils  are  to  consider  the  questions  carefully, 
"which  is  a  great  point  gained. 

They  are  to  debate  the  questions  thoughtfully  which  is 
a  greater  point  gained. 

They  are  to  answer  the  questions  with  thought  which 
is  the  greatest  gain. 

Pupils  who  are  merely  instructed  and  who  are  assisted 
unduly  at  almost  every  step  cannot  answer  questions 
"with  thought.  But  even  if  they  were  unable  to  answer 
the  questions,  to  acquire  the  power  to  consider  and  debate 
questions  with  thought  is  to  attain  the  end  sought  for. 
The  points  are,  however,  so  intertwined  with  their  daily 
experience,  and  with  the  common  things  around  them, 
that  all  may  comprehend  them. 

It  is  true  that  the  power  to  question  on  these  common 
phenomena  requires  that  the  questioner  shall  be  a  skilled 
workman,  and  that  he  shall  view  himself  as  the  director, 
the  suggestor,  the  stimulator,  and  the  child  as  a  being 
educating  himself  by  self  effort ;  but  such  a  supposition 
is  allowable. 

•iMoearivc  questions. 

Among  the  many  questions  to  be  considered,  the  following 
■will,  no  doubt,  present  themselves:— 

Where  does  the  rain  come  from  ? 

How  does  rain  get  into  the  clouds  ? 

Why  does  rain  fall  ? 

Why  does  water  collect  in  a  river  channel  ? 

Where  does  a  river  make  its  bed  ? 

Why  does  the  water  in  a  river  channel  flow  in  one  direction 
more  than  another  7 


356  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

avoided.  Every  thing  that  can  be,  is  to  be  made  pal- 
pably evident  by  illustration,  analogy,  observation  and 
experiment.  For  example,  in  treating  of  the  different 
degrees  of  heat  in  the  atmosphere  due  to  the  direct  and 
reflected  rays  of  the  sun,  refer  to  the  stove,  the  wall,  and 
the  heating  of  the  intervening  space. 

In  teaching  that  heated  air  rises  and  that  this  rising 
causes  lateral  currents,  call  attention  to  what  may  be 
observed  at  a  register,  a  fire  place  or  over  a  slab  of  heated 
iron. 

The  expansion  of  heated  air  may  be  observed  in  the 
popping  of  corn,  baking  of  apples,  etc. 

The  difference  in  the  rapidity  with  which  earth  and 
water  receive  and  give  off  heat,  may  be  shown  by  observ- 
ing buckets  filled  with  each,  and  exposed  to  the  sun,  at 
noon,  and  again  sometime  after  sunset. 

The  aim  is  to  be  to  awaken  an  intelligent  appreciation 
of  what  is  already  known  in  part  by  rote,  or  daily  seen 
by  eyes  that  see  not,  or  daily  done  but  not  understood, 
and  to  connect  it  by  its  innumerable  links  with  the  un- 
known. The  materials  presented  are  to  be  used  as  an 
exercise  ground  for  thought.  To  a  degree  it  is  dealing 
with  the  latent  known  and  the  answers  are,  in  part, 
theoretically  in  the  pupils'  minds  already,  and  the  ob- 
ject is  to  awaken  thought;  to  cause  them  to  sift  and 
rearrange  their  ideas ;  to  implant  new  desires  and  new 
capacities  for  satisfying  desires;  to  give,  not  so  much 
knowledge,  as  power  to  learn  and  to  observe. 

Unless  this  habit  of  intelligent  observation  is  implanted, 
the  horizon  will  be  close  about  the  pupil  and  he  will  be 
as  Schopenhauer  says   of  one  without  a  knowledge  of 


THE   THEORY  OF  THE   SCHOOL.  357 

Latin,  "as  a  man  walking  in  a  beautiful  region  in  a 
fog." 

The  pupils  are  to  consider  the  questions  carefully, 
■which  is  a  great  point  gained. 

They  are  to  debate  the  questions  thoughtfully  which  is 
a  greater  point  gained. 

They  are  to  answer  the  questions  with  thought  which 
is  the  greatest  gain. 

Pupils  who  are  merely  instructed  and  who  are  assisted 
unduly  at  almost  every  step  cannot  answer  questions 
with  thought.  But  even  if  they  were  unable  to  answer 
the  questions,  to  acquire  the  power  to  consider  and  debate 
questions  with  thought  is  to  attain  the  end  sought  for. 
The  points  are,  however,  so  intertwined  with  their  daily 
experience,  and  with  the  common  things  around  them, 
that  all  may  comprehend  them. 

It  is  true  that  the  power  to  question  on  these  common 
phenomena  requires  that  the  questioner  shall  be  a  skilled 
workman,  and  that  he  shall  view  himself  as  the  director, 
the  suggestor,  the  stimulator,  and  the  child  as  a  being 
educating  himself  by  self  effort ;  but  such  a  supposition 
is  allowable. 

•uoouTive  QucariONS. 

Among  the  many  questions  to  be  considered,  the  following 
will,  no  doubt,  present  themselves: — 

Where  does  the  rain  come  from  ? 

How  does  rain  get  into  the  clouds  ? 

Why  does  rain  fall  ? 

Why  does  water  collect  in  a  river  channel  ? 

Where  does  a  river  make  its  bed  ? 

Why  does  the  water  in  a  river  channel  flow  in  one  direction 
more  than  another  7 


868  THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

What  discolors  a  river  in  a  rainy  season? 

Where  did  the  mud  come  from  ? 

What  becomes  of  the  mud  and  water  in  a  river  ? 

In  what  way  are  the  sand  and  gravel  disposed  of  when  they 
reach  the  sea  ? 

Why  does  one  river  form  a  delta  and  another  an  estuary  ? 

What  is  the  air  ?    Its  parts  ? 

When  water  is  placed  in  a  kettle  and  then  heated  until  the 
kettle  is  dry,  what  has  become  of  the  water? 

Where  do  plants  get  their  solid  parts  ? 

Where  does  the  sand  in  maple  sugar  or  syrup  come  from? 

Where  doe?  the  silica  in  grain  come  from  ? 

When  plants  and  animals  decay  what  do  they  give  back  into 
the  air? 

In  breathing  what  do  animals  give  the  air  ? 

How  do  we  become  sensible  of  the  air  ? 

How  is  the  air  heated  ? 

Why  is  air  ever  cold  ? 

Why  is  the  air  warm  during  a  snow  storm  ? 

Why  are  slanting  rays  weaker  than  direct  rays  ? 

Why  are  cloudy  days  sometimes  warm  ? 

What  causes  the  motion  of  the  air  ? 

How  does  vapor  get  into  the  air? 

How  does  vapor  get  out  of  the  air  ? 

Where  does  the  water  that  collects  upon  the  outside  of  a 
pitcher  come  from  ? 

Can  vapor  be  seen  ? 

When  can  the  air  hold  the  least  vapor  ? 

What  is  dew  ? 

What  is  mist,  or  fog  ? 

What  is  a  cloud  ? 

What  is  the  difference  between  rain,  snow,  hail  and  sleet  ? 

What  are  the  shapes  of  snow  ? 

When  rain  falls  upon  the  ground  in  how  many  ways  does  it 
disappear  ? 

What  becomes  of  the  part  that  sinks  into  the  ground  ? 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  359 

Why  does  it  not  sink  to  the  center  of  the  earth  ? 

What  would  be  the  result  if  the  water  which  sinks  into  the 
earth  were  to  remain  there  ? 

How  does  the  water  get  out  of  the  ground  ? 

How  does  it  happen  that  there  is  room  for  water  in  the 
ground  ? 

What  makes  it  rise  to  the  surface  ? 

What  does  the  water  take  from  the  air  as  it  falls  as  rain  ? 

What  happens  to  the  water  that  sinks  into  the  ground  ? 

What  does  the  water  in  the  ground  do  to  the  rocks  ? 

What  makes  buildings,  rocks,  fences,  etc.,  look  old? 

What  advantage  is  it  to  have  rocks  decay  ? 

All  the  surface  of  the  land  is  traveling  in  what  direction  ? 

Why  does  water  flow  down  ? 

Why  do  rivers  wind  ? 

Is  it  better  to  have  them  wind  ? 

Of  what  advantage  are  brooks  and  rivers  ? 

What  becomes  of  snow  and  ice  in  warm  regions  ? 

What  becomes  of  that  upon  cold  mountain-tops  ? 

Does  a  glacier  help  to  make  soil  ?    How  ? 

Why  is  the  sea  salt  ? 

Is  the  sea  getting  more  or  less  salt  ?    Why  ? 

THE  STRUCTURC  OF  THE  CONTINENTS. 

1.  Instruments. 

a.  The  regular  text. 

b.  Other  texts. 

c.  Cyclopedias. 

d.  Special   works     on    physical    geography,    as 
Geike,  Somerville,  etc. 

e.  Construction  lines. 

f.  Molding. 

g.  Drawing. 
(1.)  Vertical. 
(2.)  Horizontal. 


360  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

2.  Features  in  the  Structure. 

In  the  study  of  the  structure  the  pupils  must  form  a 
picture  of  the  continent  as  a  solid ;  as  divided  by  an 
axis  into  two  slopes,  one  long  and  gradual  and  the  other 
short  and  steep  ;  as  having  on  these  slopes  secondary  axes; 
as  consisting  of  mountain  land^  plateaus  and  plains ;  of 
the  mountains  as  consisting  of  systems,  ranges  and  peaks; 
of  the  continent  as  arranged  into  river  basins;  of  the 
river  basins  as  parallel  to,  and  ^  as  at  right  angles  to  the 
continental  axes. 

3.  Order  of  Study  of  Continents. 

In  the  study  of  structure  the  order  may  be  given,  as 
— South  America,  North  America,  Asia,  Europe,  Africa, 
and  Australia.     Reasons  for  the  order  indicated  ? 

(See  Guyot's  Physical  Geography,  and  Earth  and  Man ; 
Maury's  Physical  Geography ;  Recluse's  Earth ;  Huxley's 
Physiography ;  Kingley's  Town  Geology ;  Forms  of  Water, 
by  Tyndall;  Vegetable  Mold  and  Earth- Worms,  by  Darwin.) 

FIFTH  YEAR. 
AIM. 

The  purpose  in  this  year  is  to  clothe  the  structure  studied 
in  the  previous  year  ;  i.  e.,  to  train  and  develop  the  mind 
by  a  consideration  of  the  vegetation,  minerals,  animals, 
people,  trade  cities,  (those  determined  by  natural  condi- 
tions ;  the  natural  depots  of  trade,  commerce  and  manu- 
facture; as,  New  York,  London,  San  Francisco,  Pitts- 
burg, etc.),  religions,  governments  and  systems  of  edu- 
cation of  the  earth. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE  SCHOOL.  361 

OUTLINE   OF  WORK. 
veOETATlON. 

1.  Means  of  original  investigation, 

a.  The  pupil's  own  knowledge. 

b.  Regular  text-book. 

c.  Other  text-books. 

d.  Cyclopedias. 

e.  Special  works. 

f.  Charts,  pictures,  books  on  travel. 

2.  Means  of  review. 

a.  Lead  the  pupils  to  place  on  the  board  names 
of  all  important  vegetable  products. 

b.  Lead  the  children  to  classify  them,  as — food 
plants;  building  materials;  art  materials;  material  for 
medicine,  etc.     Thus  : — 

Food  Plants. 
Staple. 

Placed  upon  board. 
Luxuries. 

Placed  upon  board. 
Building  and  Shelter. 
Clothing. 

Placed  upon  board. 
Arts  and  Manufactures. 
Coloring. 

Placed  upon  board. 
Cabinet  work. 

Placed  upon  a  board. 
Medicines. 


362 


THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


*    Names  of  plants  used  for  medicines  written  upon 
board. 

c.  Obtain  and  place  upon  board  the  names  of  the 
parts  of  the  plants  used  as  food,  building  material,  art 
and  manufacturing  material,  medicines,  etc.;  e.  g.,  leaves, 
bark,  sap,  seed,  stalk,  trunk,  root,  etc. 

d.  On  the  basis  of  the  part  used,  re-classify  the 
vegetable  productions;  as,  all  plants  the  leaves  of  which 
are  used,  etc. 

e.  Classify  vegetable  productions  according  to  re- 
gions ;  first,  by  lines,  second,  by  coloring  on  map  of  the 
earth  as  a  whole,  or  on  maps  of  the  continents. 

The  representation  by  lines  would  appear  somewhat 
as  follows  : 


n  |P 


Trop. 


Trop 


Can. 


8|P 


THE   THEORY  OP  THE   SCHOOL. 


363 


N  IP 

y^  Berries  and  Roots,  ^v 

Arc./                                                   \ 

vC. 

/            Rye.  Barley,  Potatoes. 

\ 

/                Wheat,  Oats,  Potatoes. 

\ 

/             Maize.  8weet  Potatoes.  Sugar. 

\ 

Trop./ 

/             Sugar,  Coffee,  Tea,  Maize,  Rice. 

\ 

Can. 

E- 

\ 

Rice.  Manioc,  Yams,  Bananas,  Bread-fruit. 

Trop.\ 

Sweet  Potatoes,  Rice,  Sugar. 

Cap. 

y 

\                    Maize,  Wheat,  Oats,  etc. 
\                             (introduced) 

*  ».*\ 

/C. 

\^^    Berries  and  Roots.        y^ 

S|P 


f.  Consider  the  vegetation  by  zones,  as  follows: — 
The  Arctic  Zone  is  the  zone  of  mosses  and  stunted 
trees.     The  plants  are  mosses,  lichens,  sedges,  ferns  and 
birches. 
The  Temperate  Zone  is  divided  into  three  plant  belts : 
In  its  colder  portion  are  found  cone-bearing  trees,  princi- 
pally pine,  fir,  and  spruce.     Cranberries,  raspberries  and 
email  strawberries  also  occur.     The  food  plants  of  this 
region  are  oats,  barley,  rye,  potatoes  and  turnips. 

In  the  moderate  portion^  leaf-shedding  or  decidiuma  trees 
abound  ;  such  as  oaks,  elms,  beeches,  walnuts,  and  chest- 
nuts. The  food  plants  are  wheat,  corn,  barley,  onions, 
carrotfi,  cabbage,  etc. 


364  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

In  the  warmer  portion  the  trees  are  Evergreens,  such  as 
myrtles,  laurels,  mulberry,  olive,  etc.  The  food  plants 
are  the  fig,  orange,  lemon,  the  vine,  tea,  rice,  etc. 

Cotton  also  belongs  to  this  zone. 

The  Tropical  Zone  is  the  zone  of  palms  and  bananas. 
Tree-ferns  also  abound.  The  food-plants  are  the  date- 
palm,  sago-palm  and  cocoa-palm,  and  the  bread-fruit. 

g.  Consider  vegetation  by  continents  as  follows : — 

North  America  is  the  continent  of  flowering  trees,  the 
most  striking  being  the  tulip  tree  and  the  magnolia. 

South  America  has  palms,  bananas,  tree-ferns  and  fig- 
trees. 

Asia  is  the  home  of  fruit  trees.  The  peach,  apricot, 
fig,  olive,  date,  mulberry  and  spice  trees  grow  there. 

Vines,  melons,  cucumbers,  gums,  balsams,  resins  and 
the  tea-plant  are  also  among  the  products  of  this  conti- 
nent. 

Europe  has  the  same  plants  as  Asia  in  the  same  lati- 
tudes. 

Africa  has  in  the  north,  palms ;  in  the  south,  very 
large  heaths. 

Australia  is  the  home  of  myrtles,  acacias  and  gum- 
trees. 

MINERALS. 

1.  Means  oj   original   investigation,  same  as   under 
Vegetation. 

2.  Means  of  review, 

a.  and  b.,  same  as  a.  and  b.  under  means  of  re- 
view for  Vegetation. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


365 


c.  Represent  prominent  mineral  regions  by  col- 
oring on  the  map  of  the  earth  as  a  whole,  or  on  maps  of 
the  continents. 

ANIMALS. 

1.  Means  of  original  investigation,   same   as  under 
Vegetation. 

2,  Means  of  review. 

a.,  b.  and  c.  Work  similar  to  a.,  b.  and  c.  under 
means  of  review  for  Vegetation. 

d.  Classify  animals  according  to  zone  regions,  as 
follows : — 

N|P 


Trop 

£ 
Trop. 


Arc. 


Moose.Deer,  White  Bear,  Se»l. 


0. 


Wolf,  Fox,  Grizzly  Bear,  Chamois,  Eagle 
Yak,  Bison,  Turkey,  Beaver,  Puma,  Bear, 
Camel,  Ostrich,  Flamingo,  Buffalo,  Zebra. 


I  Can. 


Lion,  Giraffe,  Elephant,  Tiger,  Boa. 

IE 

Gorilla,  Hippopotamus  Rhinoceros. 


White  Bear,  Seal. 

TiT 


1.  Means  of  original  investigation,  same  as  under 
Vegetation. 

2.  Means  of  Review. 
Same  as  c.  under  Minerals. 


366  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

NATURAL    OR  TRADE    CITIES. 

1.  Means  of  original  investigation^  same   as  under 
Vegetation. 

2.  Means  of  review. 

Represent  on  the  map  of  the  earth  as  a  whole, 
on  maps  of  continents,  or  countries,  (as  the  various  cities 
may  require)  in  the  same  color,  each  city  considered  and 
the  regions  with  which  it  is  most  closely  associated  in 
business,  together  with  the  routes  used  between  them. 

RELIGION. 

1.  Means  of  original  investigation. 

a.  Same  as  under  Vegetation,  in  so  far  as  it  will 
apply. 

b.  By  diagram,  thus : 

Confucianism, 

Braminism, 

Buddhism, 

Zendavesta, 

Judaism, 

Islam, 

Egyptian, 

Greek, 

Roman, 

Scadinavian. 

(1.)  Determine  the  main  characteristics  of  each. 
(2.)  Decide  upon  the  characteristic,  or  charac- 
teristics, common  to  each  and  the  Christian  Religion. 

2.  Means  of  Review — Coloring  upon  the  map. 

QOVERNMENT. 

1.  Means  of  original  investigation, 
a.  Same  as  a.  under  Religion. 


Christian — Catholic. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  367 


b.  By  diagram,  thus : 

Patriarchism, 
Theocracy, 
Oligarchy, 
Monarchy.  {Ab^^^te, 

Aristocracy, 
Democracy. 


Democratic  Republic. 


(1.)  Determine  the  main  characteristics  of  each. 

(2.)  Decide  upon  the  characteristic,  or  charac- 
teristics, that  are  common  to  each  and  the  democratic 
republic. 

2.  Means  of  review — Coloring  upon  the  map. 

EDUCATION. 

As  usually  presented  in  geographies. 

BOOKS   FOR   TEACHERS. 

Ocean  Wonders,  by  Damon  ;  The  Little  Merchants,  by  Miss 
Edgeworth ;  Modern  Egyptians,  by  Lane ;  Lands  of  the  Saracen, 
Bayard  Taylor ;  Heart  of  Africa,  by  Schweinfurth ;  Livingston's 
South  Africa ;  Stanley's  Across  the  Dark  Continent,  and  Congo; 
Journey  in  Brazil,  by  Agassiz  ;  Arctic  Explorations,  by  Kane ; 
The  Pampas  and  Andes,  by  Bishop ;  Overland  Through  Asia, 
by  Knox ;  Northern  Travel,  by  Taylor. 

The  Childhood  of  Religions. 

The  Childhood  of  the  Earth.     (Lovel  Library.) 

Humboldt's  Cosmos.     (Bohn  Library.) 

Ritter's  Life. 

Le  Conte's  Geology.    (Read  First  Part.) 
Geological  Story  Briefly  Told. 

Last  chapter  of  Conservation  of  Energy  —  International 
Scientific  Series. 

Guthrie's  First  Book  of  Knowledge. 

Oriental  Religions.    Caird. 

Age  of  Fable.    Bulfinch. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


BOOKS    FOR    PUPILS. 

Up  the  Amazon. 
Zig  Zag  Journeys. 
Children's  Fairy  Geography. 

8;jr^Cy^li;jS.}Le«*Shepard:  Boston. 

SIXTH  YEAR, 

The  work  of  the  sixth  year  consists  of  two  phases : — 
Political  geography^  extending  over  a  period  of  about 

five  months. 
Industrial  geography  occupying  about  the  same  length 

of  time. 

POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Political  geography  is  not  really  geography^  but  his- 
tory. It  has  generally  been  treated  as  if  it  were  almost 
the  'all  in  all'  of  the  subject.  The  first  five  months  of 
the  sixth  year  should  be  devoted  to  this  branch  of  the 
subject,  in  order  to  give  a  general  and  cursory  view  of 
the  political  divisions.  To  secure  that  the  inter-rela- 
tion of  geography  and  history  shall  render  the  great- 
est mutual  assistance,  the  order  of  study  should,  proba- 
bly, be  as  follows : — 

1.  The  countries  of  Asia. 

2.  The  countries  of  Africa. 

3.  The  countries  of  Europe. 

4.  The  countries  of  North  America. 

5.  The  countries  of  South  America. 

6.  The  divisions  of  Australia. 

The  scope  of  study  may   be  included  under  three 

heads : 

r)    •*•  f    Absolute, 

a.  Position.      ' 


'i 


Relative. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  369 

b.  Aspect. 

c.  The  inhabitants ;  in  particular,  their  industrial 
character. 

A8PE0T. 

The  first  object  in  describing  the  aspect  of  a  political 
division,  is  to  distinguish  its  ^reat  natural  divisions,  i.e., 
to  give  its  general  plan.  These  are  of  four  principal 
kinds : — Mountain  region,  slope,  river-basin,  plain  or 
plateau. 

These  should  be  described  as  they  would  actually 
appear' to  the  eye.  The  teacher  must  take  one  natural 
division  at  a  time,  and  give  a  bird's-eye  view  of  it;  this 
implies  that  the  river  shall  be  noticed  in  connection 
with  the  mountain  from  which  and  the  plain  thrdugh 
which  it  flows,  and  that  the  surface  shall  be  described 
as  generally  hilly  or  flat,  pastoral  or  agricultural,  fertile 
or  barren. 

A  country  may  have  mountain  ranges  and  large 
rivers ;  it  is  not  on  the  possession  of  these  simply,  that 
its  aspect  depends,  but  on  the  manner  in  which  they 
are  connected.  If  the  mountains,  plains,  rivers,  etc.,  be 
separated,  and  each  kind  studied  by  itself,  the  idea  of 
natural  division  is  lost  sight  of. 

Towns  or  cities  should  be  considered  under  three 
heads  : — river  towns,  sea-coast  towns  and  inland  towns. 

These  should  be  studied  under  position,  site,  size,  ap- 
pearance, historical  and  industrial  facts. 

OMAIMOTIII    OF  THI  PtOrtt. 

In  geography,  national  character  should  be  stated  as 
fact,  and  traced  to  its  causes  only  in  those  cases  where 
the  connection  is  obvious. 

25 


370  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

Examples : — 

Mountain. — Freedom  and  independence. 

Plain. — Steadiness  and  dullness. 

Rigors  of  the  North. — Stunted  growth  of  body  and 
mind.     Etc. 

The  great  and  important  aspect  of  national  character 
which  is  properly  embraced  in  the  study  of  geography 
is  the  industrial,  as  being  directly  influenced  by  the 
productions  of  the  soil. 

CHARACTERISTICS    OF    INSTRUCTION. 

Under  characteristics  of  instruction  are  included  de- 
scription according  to  the  order  and  unity  of  nature, 
questioning  apart  from  the  map,  study  in  the  light  of 
the  idea  of  contrast,  use  of  newspaper,  molding,  map- 
construction,  coloring,  use  of  text,  historical  geography 
and  incidental  geography. 

-    MAP  CONSTRUCTION. 

For  presenting  position  and  aspect,  there  is,  after  bird's- 
eye  views  and  molding,  no  other  mode  so  effectual  as  is 
map  construction.  The  map  of  the  continent  should  be 
first  constructed  as  a  basis  for  the  map  of  the  political 
divisions.  The  map  to  be  constructed  should  not  be  com- 
pleted in  a  single  effort.  It  should  be  constructed  in  the 
presence  of  and  by  the  aid  of  the  pupils.  It  should  grow 
with  their  advancing  knowledge  of  the  country,  'and 
should  represent  no  more  at  any  time,  than  they  know  of 
it ;  otherwise,  the  exercise  becomes  purely  a  mechanical 
act  of  copying,  and  fails  of  its  object.  One  division  at  a 
time  should  be  filled  in  with  mountain,  river  and  town ; 
then  another  and  another,  till  the  whole  country  appears 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  371 

in  the  representation;  the  progress  of  the  map   being 
kept  in  strict  accordance  with  the  progress  of  instruction. 
Finally,  the  pupils  should  present,  on  paper,  carefully 
prepared  maps  of  the  most  important  countries. 

08E   OF    TEXT. 

The  text  is  to  be  used  for  certain  kinds  of  facts ;  but 
as  a  rule,  the  text  should  be  used  to  confirm  and  supple- 
ment the  conclusions  drawn  from  the  other  means.  So 
far  from  being  looked  upon  as  aids  to  books,  books 
should  be  considered  as  explanatory  of  these  means. 


HISTORICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


From  the  close  relation  that  exists  between  geography  ] 

and  history,  in  geography  there  should  be  constant  ref-  ! 

erence  to  the  historical  associations  of  places,  limited  by  ; 

this  principle ; — Historical  facts  are  to  be  considered  in  the  \ 

study  of  geography  when  the  facts  are  so  suited  to  the  mental  \ 

development  of  the  pupils,  that  they  can  be  led  to  perceive  their  '> 
significance.                                                                         ^ 


INCIDENTAL  aEOQRAPHV. 


In  many  of  the  lessons  in  school,  other  than  the  geog- 
raphy lesson,  there  are  allusions  to  places.  These  allu- 
sions should  be  illustrated  by  oral  statement,  and  then 
by  actual  reference  to  the  map.  There  are  two  reasons 
for  this : — 

It  is  necessary  for  the  full  comprehension  of  the 
lesson  being  studied. 

It  teaches  the  pupil  to  use  his  geographical  know- 
ledge for  casual  purposes,  just  as  he  will  afterwards  have 
to  use  it  in  his  business  life. 


372  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

(See  Earth  as  Modified  by  Human  Action, — Marsh  ;  Buckle's 
History  of  Civilization  in  England ;  Draper's  Intellectual  De- 
velopment of  Europe;  Books  of  Travel,— G.  Putnam  &  Son; 
Bound  About  Rio;  Strange  Dwellings;  Travels  in  Mexico; 
Our  Boys  in  India,  and  Our  Boys  in  China.) 

INDUSTRIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

In  this  division,  the  United  States  are  considered  in 
their  business  aspect.     This  involves — 

1.  That  the  country  as  a  business  whole,  should  be 
cansidered  in  relation  to  the  countries  with  which  it  has 
important  commercial  relations. 

2.  That  each  of  its  important  commercial  cities 
should  be  studied  in  connection  with  the  places  with 
which  it  is  closely  related  in  business,  instead  of  each 
of  these  being  considered  separately,  and  the  pupil 
allowed  to  learn  their  relation  incidentally. 

3.  That  each  of  its  most  important  manufacturing 
cities  should  be  presented  in  connection  with  the  min- 
eral and  other  districts  upon  which  its  importance  de- 
pends. 

THE   SPECIFIC    LINES    OF   INVESTIGATION, 

1.  The  manner  and  degree  to  which  the  people  of 
the  United  States  sustain  themselves. 

2.  The  manner  and  degree  to  which  they  contribute 
to  the  sustenance  of  others. 

3.  How  they  come  to  make  the  particular  contri- 
butions which  they  do. 

4.  The  manner  and  degree  to  which  the  other 
nations  considered,  contribute  to  the  sustenance  of  the 
people  of  the  United  States. 


THE   THEORY  OP  THE  SCHOOL.  373 

5.  How  they  come  to  make  the  contributions  which 
they  do. 
The  preliminary  steps  are : — 

1.  To  construct  a  blackboard  map  of  the  earth  as  a 
whole. 

2.  To  place  on  that  map,  the  United  States  and  its 
dependencies  in  a  given  color. 

3.  To  represent  in  another  color  its  chief  business 
cities  in  their  business  relations. 

4.  To  represent  in  like  manner  on  the  same  map 
the  countries  that  are  most  largely  engaged  in  trade 
with  the  United  States. 

THE   STEPS    IN    THE   WORK. 

1.  The  study  of  the  United  States^  under : — 

a.  Actual  position. 

b.  Relative  position. 

(1.)  In  relation  to  the  other  countries  repre- 
sented. 

(2.)  In  relation  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 
(3.)  In  relation  to  the  prevailing  winds. 
(4.)  In  relation  to  ocean  currents. 

c.  Actual  and  relative  size. 

d.  Aspect. 

(1.)  Mountain  regions. 

(2.)  Slopes. 

(3.)  Plains. 

(4.)  River  basins. 

e.  Natural  productions. 
(1.)  Mineral. 

(a.)  Location  of  principal  mineral  regions, 
(b.)  Amount  and  value  of  mineral  produc- 
tion. 


General  rela- 
tion of  these 
to  business. 


374  THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

(2.)  Vegetable. 

(a.)  and  (b.)  as  in  (1.) 
3.  Animal. 

(a.)  and  (b.)  as  in  (1.) 

f.  Manufactured  productions. 

(1.)  Location  of  principal  manufactories. 
(2.)  Reasons  for  such  location. 
(3.)  Amount  and  value  of  manufactured  pro- 
ductions. 

g.  Means  of  communication. 
(1.)  Shipping. 

(a.)  Principal  lines. 

(b.)  Number  of  miles. 

(c.)  Distinctive  features  of  the  trade. 
(2.)  Railroads. 

(a.),  (b.),  (c),  as  in  (1.) 
(3.)  Telegraph. 

(a.)  and  (b.)  as  in  (1.) 
(4.)  Telephone. 

(a.),  (b.),  (c),  as  in  (1.) 
h.  Inhabitants. 
(1.)  Number. 
(2.)  Races. 

(3.)  Number  engaged  in  each  of  the  principal 
occupations. 

(4.)  National  character  and  causes  thereof. 
(5.)  Their  form  of  government. 

2.  Less  exhaustive  study  of  the  dq)endencies  of  the 
United  States  under  the  same  points. 

3.  Less  exhaustive  study  of  the  other  countries  repre- 
sented^ and  their  dependencies^  under  the  same  points. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  375 

The  instruction,  as  before  indicated,  should  be  char- 
acterized by : — 

a.  Thorough  description  in  the  order  of  nature. 

b.  Questioning  apart  from  the  map. 

c.  Adherence  to  the  principle  of  contrast. 

d.  Full  and  regular  use  of  newspapers. 

One  way  of  employing  the  newpaper  to  advantage  is 
to  take  some  paper  like  the  N.  Y.  Tribune,  Herald, 
Times,  etc.,  which  advertises  the  departure  and  arrival 
of  shipping,  and  have  the  pupils  trace  the  course  of  the 
vessel,  explaining  why  such  course  is  taken. 

(See  newspapers  and  periodicals;  Tribune  Almanac,  and 
others  of  like  character ;  Reports  of  Heads  of  the  Departments 
of  the  Government ;  Manual  of  Commerce,  by  S.  W.  Browne  ; 
Natural  Resources  of  the  U.  S„  by  Patton  ;  A  Hand-Book  to  the 
Industries  of  the  British  Isles  and  the  U.  S.,  by  Bevan  ;  Com- 
mercial Products  of  the  Sea,  by  Simmonds;  The  Geography  of 
the  Oceans,  (containing  tables  of  commerce)  by  J.  F.  Williams ; 
The  Statesman's  Year  Book,  Statistical  and  Historical  Annual 
of  the  States  of  the  Civilized  World,  Macmillan  &  Co.)  • 


METHOD  IN  U.  8.  HISTORY. 


Practical  Teacfur.— "To  begin  the  Study  of  U.  S.  History,  mold  a  map 
Of  Charleston  and  Boston,  showing  Bunker  Hill,  Breed's  Hill,  ships  in  the 
harbor ;  throw  up  a  redoubt  on  Breed's  Hill.  Mark  the  line  of  the  stone  and 
rail  fence.  Draw  a  map  showing  Boston,  Charleston,  Dorchester  Heights, 
Cambridge,  the  British  quarters,  the  American  encampment.  Make  the 
scene  as  real  as  poBsible.  Who  are  these  men  in  the  redoubt  ?  How  are  they 
dressed?  Tell  me  about  their  equipments?  What  kind  of  guns  have  they  ? 
How  are  these  guns  fired  ?  Did  you  ever  see  such  a  gun  ?  Describe  the  sol- 
diers' ammunition.  How  do  they  carry  bullets?  How  were  the  bullets 
made?    How  do  they  carry  powder?    How  do  they  load  their  guns?   Where 


376  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


did  these  men  come  from?  Draw  a  map  of  the  places  in  which  they  live. 
In  what  kind  of  houaes  do  they  live  ?  Where  do  they  work  ?  Draw  one  of 
their  houses?  Describe  the  inside  of  the  house  ?  What  do  they  learn?  Of 
what  religion  are  they?  How  did  they  get  here?  Why  did  they  come? 
Have  they  good  reasons  for  coming?  What  are  they?  Who  are  those  sol- 
diers landing  on  the  shore?  How  are  they  dressed?  How  do  they  march ? 
Who  leads  them?  Where  do  they  live?  Why  are  they  here?  Who  sent 
them?  Why?  Who  are  leading  the  farmers ?  Who  is  Prescott ?  Putnam? 
Warren,  ?  Stark  ?  See  the  Americans  as  they  hold  their  guns  steadily  over 
the  breastworks  until  the  British  come  within  eight  rods.  Is  it  not  a  terrible 
thing  to  kill  men?  Are  the  Americans  right  in  firing?  IVhat  if  they  had 
run?  What  excellent  reasons  have  they  for  running?  What  gave  them 
courage?  Tell  all  about  the  battle.  Who  commanded  the  Americans? 
Who  won  ?  Why  do  the  Americans  celebrate  the  day  as  if  it  were  a 
victory  ? 

The  questions  suggest  the  line  of  study.  Have  pupils  find  the  answei^ 
by  reading,  questioning  their  parents  and  friends,  and  by  pictures  or  relics. 

Take  time,  let  the  investigation  cover  weeks  if  you  can  keep  up  the  in- 
terest.   First  lead  your  pupils  to  live  upon  the  scene. 

Objector—"  But  we  haven't  the  time  to  spend  on  Bunker  Hill.  What  of 
the  examination  ?  " 

Practical  Teacher— "The  examination?  Remain  on  Bunker  Hill  so 
long  that  from  the  height  your  pupils  can  see  with  clear  vision  the  past  and 
that  which  led  to  that  glorious  morning— and  what  those  brave  acts  did  for 
mankind— and  let  the  examination  take  care  of  itself.    It  will." 

— F.  W.  Parker's  Practical  Teacher. 


WHAT   HISTORY    IS.  \ 

WHAT  U.  S.  HISTORY  IS,  i 

\ 
i 

THE   AIM   IN    TEACHING   HISTORY.  | 

THE  AIM  IN  TEACHING  U.  S.   HISTORY.  1 

\ 

THE   SYSTEM    OF    HISTORY.  « 

THE  SYSTEM  OF  U.  S.  HISTORY.  "^ 

A 

THE   MENTAL   POWERS   INVOLVED   AND    TRAINED.  ! 

BIOGRAPHY.  I 

Biography  is  studied  incidentally,  in  connection  with   j 
devotional,  general,  reading  and  other  lessons  ;  and  also  ] 


THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  377 

in  the  consideration  of  the  third  individual — the  na- 
tion ;^a8,  in  connection  with  the  Revolution,  Washing- 
ton ;  with  the  Mexican  War,  Scott  and  Taylor ;  with 
the  administrations,  Adams,  Jefierson,  etc.;  with  the 
Rebellion,  Grant,  Thomas,  etc. 

THE   STUDY   OF   HOMES. 

1.  In  the  Fourth  year,  after  having  completed  the 
structure  of  North  America,  in  geography,  the  study  of 
the  Aborigines  in  their  homeSj  is  entered  upon.  The 
premises  of  a  typical  home  or  village  would,  with  mold- 
ing sand  and  building  material,  be  represented  by  the 
pupils.  They  would  make  the  construction  of  the 
miniature  houses  as  real  as  possible.  The  people  would 
then  be  studied  in  their  homes,  as  to  what  their  work 
is;  what  they  wear,  and  how  they  obtain  it;  what  they 
eat,  and  how  they  obtain  it;  their  furniture;  their 
weapons;  their  education;  how  they  are  governed; 
their  strongest  beliefs.  The  pupils  are  to  study  about 
them  from  various  sources,  and  to  live  with  them  in  imag- 
ination, until  they  obtain  something  of  an  insight  into 
their  genius  and  spirit,  as  a  community. 

2.  In  the  Fifth  year  the  pupils  are  to  study  the 
Spanish  and  the  French,  of  all  grades,  in  their  homes. 

3.  The  work  of  the  Sixth  year,  is  to  endeavor  to 
lead  the  pupils  to  comprehend  the  spirit  and  influence 
of  typical  Dutch  and  English  homes  of  different  grades. 

4.  The  first  five  months  of  the  Seventh  year  are  to 
be  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  colonists  from  these  four 
nations,  in  their  new  homes. 


378  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

The  pupil  is  to  study  the  homes  as  indicated  in  the  differ' 
^nt  years,  in  order  to  come  into  a  comprehension  of  the  spirit 
of  their  lives.  ^^All  true  history  centers  around  homes.  There 
are  the  secret  springs  of  action.''''  Who  were  the  ^Embat- 
tled farmers?'  What  did  they  eat?  What  did  they 
wear?  What  did  they  study  ?  What  did  they  believe? 
How  came  they  in  those  homes  ?  Who  were  their  ances- 
tors ?  Describe  a  New  England  home.  Compare  it  with 
an  English  home."  The  homes  of  the  Spanish,  French, 
Dutch,  English  and  Colonists,  having  been  made  real  to 
the  pupils,  they  are  prepared  to  commence,  about  the 
middle  of  the  seventh  year,  the  study  of  the  national 
individual,  with  genuine  and  enduring  interest. 

(See  Letters  from  Spain — Bryant;  Outre  Mer— Longfellow ; 
Old  Streets  and  Houses  of  England— Scribner,  Sept.,  1877  ;  The 
Saxons  in  England— Kern ble  ;  Notes  on  England— Taine ;  Old 
English  History— Freeman  ;  Our  Old  Home— Hawthorne ; 
Stories  of  Old  Dominion — Cook  ;  The  Siege  of  Boston— Froth- 
ingham ;  A  Short  History  of  the  English  People— Green ; 
Child's  History  of  England— Dickens ;  Pioneers  in  the  Settle- 
ment of  America— Crafts ;  The  Home  of  Columbus— Harper, 
Dec,  1876 ;  The  Knickerbockers  of  New  York  Two  Centuries 
Ago— Harper,  Dec,  1876  ;  "The  Good  Old  Times"  in  Plymouth 
—Harper,  Jan.,  1877  ;  The  Romance  of  the  Hudson— Harper, 
April,  May  and  June,  1876 ;  Old  Philadelphia— Harper,  May, 
1876  ;  Spanish  Sketches— Scribner,  Dec,  1875 ;  History  of  France 
—Mrs.  Markham  ;  see  Century  for  July,  1885.) 

STUDY  OF  THE  NATION. 

AS  TO  ITS   INNER  LIFE. 

PRINCIPLES. 

1.  Those  that  pertain  to  history  in  general : 

a.  A  nation  being  sovereign,  has,  per  consequence, 
a  moral  purpose. 

b.  History  may  be  viewed  as  the  biography  of 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  379 

commonwealths;  it  is  therefore  subjective  and  objectivey 
i:  e.,  it  deals  with  principles  in  their  development  and 
with  outward  events. 

c.  It  concerns  itself  with  deeds  as  the  manifesta- 
tion of  the  development  of  rational  free-will  in  a 
people. 

d.  Being  the  investigation  of  development,  it  is 
composed  of  epochs. 

e.  The  epochs  of  the  development  of  a  nation 
should  be  determined  by  those  events  that  are  peculiar 
to  it. 

f.  The  spirit  and  action  in  any  epoch  should  be 
studied  in  the  work  of  a  writer  of  that  epoch,  as  well  as 
in  the  work  of  a  writer  of  the  present  epoch. 

g.  The  wars  of  a  nation,  are  in  general,  its  subordi- 
nate events. 

h.  The  purpose  of  history  is:  (1.)  To  show 
what  real  history  is.  (2.)  To  create  an  interest  in  his- 
tory. (3.)  To  acquaint  the  pupils  with  a  method  of  in- 
vestigation. (4.)  To  so  discipline  the  judgment  that 
it  shall  be  able  to  apply  the  lessons  of  the  past  to  the 
present.  (5.)  To  cause  the  pupils  to  love  and  honor  all 
that  is  noble  in  their  country's  progress. 

2.  Those  that  pertain  to  the  American  people  as  a 
distinctive  political  community. — 
Singly  :— 

a.  Government  by  the  people,  for  the  people,  and 
of  the  people. 

b.  The  supremacy  of  the  civil  over  the  military 
power. 

c.  Equal  laws  for  the  common  good. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


In  opposing  pairs : — 

a.  (1.)  The  absolute  authority  of  the  community 
in  religious  affairs. 

(2.)  The  absolute  authority  of  conscience  in  re- 
ligious affairs. 

b.  (1.)  The  union  of  church  and  state  with 
church  supreme. 

(2.)  The  separation  of  church  and  state. 

c.  (1.)  Suffrage  and  office  based  on  church  mem- 
bership. 

(2.)  Suffrage  and  office  based  on  citizenship. 

d.  (1.)  The  supremacy  of  the  colony  or  state  in 
a  final  appeal. 

(2.)  The  supremacy  of  the  central  government 
in  a  final  appeal. 

e.  (1.)  The  central  government  is  endowed  with 
only  those  powers  expressly  delegated  to  it  in  the  Con- 
stitution, all  others  being  reserved  to  the  states, — the 
Strict  Constructionist  view. 

(2.)  The  central  government  is  endowed  with 
all  powers  of  acting  for  the  general  welfare  that  are  not 
denied  to  it  in  the  Constitution — the  Liberal  Construc- 
tionist view. 

The  triumph  of  this  principle  is  seen  in  the  acknowledge- 
ment by  all  parties  that  the  national  government  is  endowed 
with  the  power  of  making  internal  improvements,  of  abolish- 
ing slavery,  of  coercing  a  rebellious  state,  of  conferring  civil 
rights  upon  the  freedmen ;  of  laying  protective  duties ;  and  of 
organizing  a  national  banking  system. 

f.  (1.)  Freedom  of  speech  and  of  the  press. 

(2.)  Authority  of  the  government  in  regard  to 
these. 


THE  THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  381 

g.  (1.)  Right  to  peaceably  assemble  and  petition 
for  redress  of  grievances  and  right  to  carry  arms. 

(2.)  Authority  of  the  government  in  regard  to 
these. 

It  is  obvious  that  these  indicate  the  principles  that  have  ob- 
tained not  in  any  single  stage  of  our  national  progress,  but  in 
its  successive  epochs. 

3.  Those  that  pertain  to  the  mind  in  acquisition ; 
a.  In  a  series  of  events  the  mind  requires  a  general 
plan. 

•  b.  All  education  is  based  upon  actual  experience. 

c.  The  child  is  most  interested  in  that  which 
appeals  to  his  experience. 

d.  Interest  is  the  basis  of  attention ;  attention  of 
memory,  and  memory  of  permanency  of  acquisition. 

e.  The  memory  may  act  through  judgment. 

f.  The  exercise  of  the  judgment  begins  early,  and 
continues  throughout  life. 

g.  The  natural  procedure  is  from  the  known  to 
the  related  unknown. 

h.  The  imagination  creates  no  new  material ;  it 
creates  ideala. 

i.  The  mind  has  certain  innate  principles  of  asso- 
ciation, in  accordance  with  which  it  acquires. 


EPOCHS. 
AMOurri    RiLioioua  mccnmncv. 


The  compact  of  the  May  Flower  in  1620  announced 
the  birth  of  constitutional  liberty.  This  was  the  dawn 
of  that  light  which  now  sends  forth  its  full  beams  from 
institutions  based  on  "  equal  laws  "  for  "  the  common 


382  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

good."  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  primal  epoch  in 
our  history — the  epoch  of  absolute  religious  ascendency. 
Twenty-three  years  later,  the  epoch  had  its  close  in  an 
event  indicating  no  small  progress  in  political  science. 
The  Union  of  the  New  England  Colonies,  "  Protection 
against  the  Dutch,  French  and  Indians  and  the  liberties 
of  the  gospel  in  purity  and  peace"  were  its  objects.  To 
this  significant  event  may  be  traced  four  notable  things 
— two  provisions  of  the  present  Constitution,  a  principle 
which  was  later  the  occasion  of  a  long  and  bitter  strug- 
gle,— viz.,  ultimate  colonial  supremacy — and  the  glorious 
hope  of  a  new  and  better  union ;  for  it  was  provided  in 
the  plan  of  union  that  fugitive  servants  and  criminals 
should  be  delivered  up  ;  that  judgments  of  courts  of  law 
and  probates  of  wills  in  each  colony  should  have  full 
faith  and  credit  in  all  others,  and  that  to  each  colony 
should  be  reserved  its  respective  local  jurisdiction — so 
old  is  the  question  of  State  Rights. 

The  principles  of  this  momentous  epoch  were — the 
supremacy  of  the  colony  in  local  affairs ;  the  absolute 
authority  of  the  community  in  religious  affairs ;  a  union 
of  church  and  state  with  church  supreme,  and  equal 
laws  for  the  common  good, 

DECLINE    OF    ABSOLUTE    RELIQIOUS    ASCENDENCY. 

In  the  union  of  1643,  only  church  members  were  the 
free-men  or  electors,  showing  that  the  religious  element 
was  still  in  the  ascendency,  as  at  the  beginning ;  but  the 
nation  was  then  about  entering  on  a  new  epoch — the 
decline  of  absolute  religious  ascendency.  The  close 
of  this  long  epoch  is  fittingly  marked  in  1754  by  the 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  383 

memorable  Albany  Plan  of  Union,  and  its  rejection  ;  in 
which  plan  was  the  first  official  suggestion  of  what  grew, 
afterward,  to  be  our  present  Constitution.  This  union 
was  significant  in  that  it  was  a  plan  of  permanent  union. 
Brancroft  says — (see  vol.  i v.,  p.  123):  "The  constitu- 
tion was  a  compromise  between  the  prerogative  and 
popular  power.  The  king  was  to  name  and  support  a 
governor-general,  who  should  have  a  negative  on  all 
laws ;  the  people  of  the  colonies,  through  the  legislatures, 
were  to  elect  triennially  a  grand  council,  which  alone 
could  originate  bills.  Each  colony  was  to  send  a  num- 
ber of  members  in  proportion  to  its  contributions,  yet 
not  less  than  two  or  more  than  seven.  The  governor- 
general  was  to  nominate  military  officers,  subject  to  the 
advice  of  the  council,  which  in  tnrn.  was  to  nominate 
all  civil  officers.  No  money  was  to  be  issued  but  by 
their  joint  order.  Each  colony  was  to  retain  its  domestic 
constitution,  the  federal  government  was  to  regulate  all 
relations  of  peace  and  war  with  the  Indians,  affairs  of 
trade,  and  purchases  of  lands  not  within  the  bounds  of 
particular  colonies ;  to  establish,  organize  and  tempo- 
rarily to  govern  new  settlements,  to  raise  soldiers,  and 
equip  vessels  of  force  on  the  seas,  rivers  or  lakes;  to  make 
laws,  and  to  levy  just  and  equal  taxes.  The  grand  coun- 
cil were  to  meet  once  a  year,  to  choose  their  own  speaker, 
and  neither  to  be  dissolved  or  prorogued,  nor  continue 
sitting  longer  than  six  weeks  at  any  one  time,  but  by 
their  own  consent." 

There  can  be  no  stronger  evidence  of  both  religious 
and  political  advance  since  the  close  of  the  previous 
epoch,  than  the  purely  political  nature  of  the  constitu- 


38;i  THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

tion,  and  the  fact  that  it  was  rejected  by  the  colonies  as 
giving  too  much  power  to  the  king. 

The  principles  of  state  rights  and  equal  laws  for  the 
common  good  were  still  prevalent,  while  supremacy  of 
the  community  in  religion  and  the  union  of  church  and 
state,  with  church  supreme,  had  given  place  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  supremacy  of  conscience,  and  separation  of 
church  and  state. 

JUDICIAL  STRUOaLE. 

The  nation  was  now  entering  upon  an  epoch  of  fierce 
contention  for  the  purity  of  its  judiciary^  the  central  princi- 
ple being  that  tenure  of  office  in  the  judgeship  should 
be  based  upon  good  behavior.  This  was  in  1765 
merged  into  the  ever-memorable  epoch  of  agitation  for 
legislative  power  in  financial  affairs.  The  condition  of 
the  public  mind  at  this  time  was  shown  with  peculiar 
force  by  that  wonderful  union  of  the  colonies  in  Congress, 
in  October,  1765,  which  determined  to  ground  American 
liberties  on  natural  justice,  abstract  truth  and  universal 
reason.  It  was  resolved  that,  "  We  should  stand  upon 
the  broad  common  ground  of  those  natural  rights  that 
we  all  feel  and  know  as  men  and  as  descendents  of 
Englishmen.  We  should  wish  such  charters  as  may 
not  ensnare  us  at  the  last,  by  drawing  different  colonies 
to  act  differently  in  this  great  cause.  Whenever  this  is 
the  case,  all  will  be  over  with  the  whole.  There  ought 
to  be  no  New  England  man,  no  New  Yorker  known  on 
the  continent,  but  all  of  us  Americans."  These  views 
prevailed ;  and  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Congress  the 
argument  for  American  liberty  from  royal  grants  was 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  385 

avoided.  This  was  the  first  great  step  toward  independ- 
ence. During  this  epoch  the  principlesof  the  previous 
epoch — the  supremacy  of  the  colony  in  local  aJBfairs; 
equal  laws  for  the  common  good;  supremacy  of  con- 
science ;  and  separation  of  church  and  state — were  man- 
ifest, though  they  were  thrust  into  the  background  by 
that  of  the  appointment  of  judges  during  good  befiavior. 

LCOISLATIVI   AOITATION. 

America  was  now  entering  upon  its  great  epoch  of 
agitation  for  legislative  power ^  which,  so  rapid  was  the 
development,  assumed  in  the  brief  period  between 
1766  and  1776,  the  three  distinct  phases  of  "no  taxa- 
tion without  representation,"  "  no  legislation  without 
representation,"  "no  legislation.*'  It  needed  but  the 
single  step — no  political  connection — and  America's 
great  and  glorious  struggle  would  be  complete.  This 
great  step  was  consummated  on  the  ever  memorable 
second  of  July,  1776,  when  twelve  of  the  thirteen  colo- 
nies, "  without  one  dissenting  voice,"  resolved:  "That 
these  United  Colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free 
and  independent  states  ;  that  they  are  absolved  from  all 
allegiance  to  the  British  crown,  and  that  all  political 
connection  between  them  and  the  state  of  Great  Britain 
is  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved."  "  The  greatest  ques- 
tion," wrote  John  Adams,  "was  decided,  which  ever  was 
debated  in  America;  and  a  greater,  perhaps,  never  was 'nor 
never  will  be  decided  among  men.  When  I  look  back  to 
1761,  and  run  through  the  series  of  political  events,  the 
chain  of  causes  and  effects,  I  am  surprised  at  the  sudden- 
ness as  well  as  the  greatness  of  this  revolution.     Britain 

20 


386  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

has  been  filled  with  folly  and  America  with  wisdom.  It  is 
the  will  of  Heaven  that  the  two  countries  should  be  sun- 
dered forever.  *  *  *  *  ^  *  The  second  day  of  July, 
1776,  will  be  the  most  memorable  epoch  in  the  history  of 
America,  to  be  celebrated  by  succeeding  generations  as 
the  great  anniversary  festival,  commemorated  as  the  day 
of  deliverance  by  solemn  acts  of  devotion  to  God 
Almighty  from  one  end  of  the  continent  to  the  other  from 
this  time  forward  forevermore." 

In  this  epoch  the  same  great  principles  that  pertained 
to  the  preceding  one  were  cherished,  but  the  overshad- 
owing one  was  that  of  independence. 


CONSTRUCTION. 


Independence  having  been  declared,  America  had 
thrust  upon  her  the  critical  epoch  of  construction,  ex- 
tending from  1776  to  the  formation  of  the  present  Con- 
stitution in  1787.  This  was  pre-eminently  an  epoch  of 
compromise.  Its  principles  were  the  same  as  those 
of  the  epoch  which  ended  with  the  Declaration  of 
Independence.  But "  two  that  had,  since  1643,  been 
contending  principles — State  Rights  and  Centraliza- 
tion— stood. out  in  this  epoch  in  still  more  stub- 
born antagonism ;  and  two  others — Slave  Labor  and 
Free  Labor — entered  the  lists  in  that  irrepressible  con- 
flict. 

TRIAL. 

With  the  formation  of  the  Constitution  began  the 
great  tentative  or  test  epoch  of  the  Union.  It  was  the 
most  extraordinary  in  its  results.  It  marked  the  rise  of 
parties  and  party  spirit.     The  principles  of  the  people, 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  387 


as  a  whole,  were  as  before — equal  laws  for  the  common 
good ;  separation  of  church  and  state ;  the  absolute 
authority  of  conscience.  Freedom  of  speech  and  of 
the  press  also  became  the  definitely  expressed  princi- 
ples of  all  parties  in  this  epoch.  But  these  did  not 
furnish  the  contending  principles,  the  solution  of  whose 
conflict  marks  the  close  of  this  epoch.  There  were 
arrayed  upon  the  one  side  these  ideas — the  absolute 
sovereignty  of  the  state  in  an  ultimate  appeal ;  the  strict 
construction  of  the  Constitution ;  the  relegation  of  the 
status  of  slavery  to  the  state  and  to  the  territory.  Upon 
the  other  side  were  the  opposing  ideas  of  the  limited 
authority  of  the  state ;  the  sovereignty  of  the  central 
government  in  the  limits  of  the  Constitution;  the  lib- 
eral constructfon  of  the  Constitution,  authorizing  inter- 
nal improvements  by  the  general  government,  a  general 
tariff  and  kindred  means ;  state  authority  over  slavery 
in  the  states,  but  national  authority  over  it  in  the  ter- 
ritories. This  last  appeared  later  as  national  authority 
over  the  subject  of  slavery,  and  finally  as  no  slavery. 

This  crucial  epoch  ended  in  1865,  in  the  establish- 
ment of  the  principles  of  free  labor,  limited  state 
authority  and  a  liberal  construction  of  the  Constitution. 
So  ended  the  conflict  that  began  with  the  Union  of  the 
New  England  Colonies  in  1643.  Such  are  the  princi- 
ples of  to-day,  to  which  are  added,  of  course,  those  which 
were  stated  ae  principles  common  to  all  parties  in  the 
previous  epoch. 

MfTHOO 

Those  principles  that  mark  and  characterize  each 
epoch,  form  its  inner  life.     In  each  epoch  they  form  the 


388  THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

true  ground  for  the  interpretation  of  the  outer  life.  In 
the  light  of  principles  only,  can  the  pupil  be  led  to  a 
clear  understanding  of  the  events,  laws,  charters,  con- 
ventions and  petitions  of  the  early  epochs ;  and  the  great 
questions  of  territorial  organization,  tariff,  national 
bank,  internal  improvements  and  others  of  the  later 
epochs. 

The  true  method  in  history  will  seize  upon  these  prin- 
ciples that  give  character  to  the  different  epochs  and  hold 
them  aloft  to  give  light  and  life  to  all  outward  events. 
It  consists  of  two  essential  steps.  According  to  one 
phase,  in  the  first  place,  the  religious,  political  and  social 
aspects  of  the  present  should  be  definitely  set  forth,  in- 
cluding outward  manifestations  and  principles  ;  and  in 
the  second  place  the  religious,  political  and  social  prin- 
ciples of  the  first  epoch  in  U:  S.  history  should  be  pre- 
sented as  a  set  of  principles  animating  the  people  of 
that  epoch;  and  the  events  of  that  epoch  should  be 
viewed  as  manifestations  of  those  principles.  Thus, 
epoch  by  epoch,  the  pupils  are  to  trace  those  princi- 
ples, in  their  collisions,  changes,  and  transfusions,  con- 
sidering events  in  the  light  of  them,  until  they  are 
merged  into  the  principles  of  the  present. 

In  accordance  with  the  other  phase,  there  should  be 
presented  in  the  beginning,  the  events  or  manifesta- 
tions of  any  one  nature  as  seen  in  the  present  and 
the  spirit  or  principle  which  they  embody  should 
be  determined;  e.  ^r.,  the  explorations  or  expeditions  of 
discovery  of  this  age,  as  those  of  De  Long,  Stanley,  etc., 
should  be  discussed,  and  then  the  principle  or  spirit 
animating  them  made  clear; — and  as  a  second  step,  the 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 


principles  or  spirit  of  discovery  preceding  the  first 
epoch  of  U.  S.  history  should  be  set  forth.  These 
principles  should  be  traced  in  a  continuous  course  with 
all  their  accompanying  manifestations  until  they  are 
merged  into  the  present  age. 

The  events  or  manifestations  of  another  nature,  e.  g., 
settlements,  in  the  present  and  their  underlying  prin- 
ciples or  spirit  should  be  taught,  with  their  accom- 
panying results.  This  topic  should  then  be  pursued 
from  the  beginning,  in  all  its  phases  down  to  the  present. 

Thus,  one  by  one,  the  principles  of  the  present,  as  the 
religious  principle ;  free  trade  and  protection ;  state 
rights  and  centralization,  etc.,   should  be  considered : 

1.  In  their  present  aspect. 

2.  In  their  origin, 

3.  In  their  course  and  manifestations  from  the  be- 
ginning to  the  present. 

The  first  phase  of  this  double  method  is  the  appro- 
priate one  in  the  original  investigation  of  history;  the 
second  in  its  review.  The  review  may  also  be  conduct- 
ed by  means  of  the  categories,  (page  243).  Illustrate 
the  manner  in  which  the  categories  may  be  employed, 
by  considering  the  Battle  of  Bunker's  Hill. 

(See  Cyclopedia  of  Education  ;  Hildredth's  History  of  the  U. 
8.;  Lectures  on  Modern  History— Dr.  Arnold ;  The  Battle  of 
Long  Island— Harper,  Mar.,  1876 ;  The  Fifteen  Decisive  Battles 
— Creasy  ;  Some  Unpublished  Letters  of  Washington — Harper, 
March,  1878 ;  New  York  in  the  Revolution — Scribner,  Jan.  and 
Feb.,  1876;  A  Piece  of  Secret  History— Scribner,  Feb.,  1876; 
Camp  Fires  of  the  Revolution— Parley ;  The  Mohawk  Valley 
During  the  Revolution— Harper,  July,  1877;  General  Stark  and 


390  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

the  Battle  of  Bennington — Harper,  Sept.,  1877;  The  Campaign  of 
Burgoyne — Harper,  Oct.,  1877  ;  Bancroft ;  The  Lost  Cause — 
Pollard  ;  The  War  Between  the  States — Stephens  ;  The  Ameri- 
can Conflict — Greely  ;  The  Memoirs  of  W.  T.  Sherman,  and  The 
Memoirs  of  U.  S.  Grant ;  The  Century's  War  Articles,  1885-86.) 

AS  TO   ITS  GOVERNMENT. 

The  study  of  this  should  commence  with  a  general 
examination  of  the  different  forms  of  government  in  the 
world — Patriarchal ;  Theocratic ;  Monarchical,  Absolute, 
Limited,  Hereditary,  Elective ;  Democratic  and  Repub- 
lican— with  historic  examples. 

The  class  should  next  enter  upon  an  examination 
of  the  government  of  the  United  States.  Although  such 
analysis  begins  with  the  most  complex  and  highly 
organized  government  in  the  world,  it  finds  the  pupils 
already  prepared  for  the  instruction,  by  having  lived  in 
the  country  and  entered  into  the  spirit  of  the  nation. 

As  it  more  intimately  concerns  them  and  their  future, 
their  interest  is  readily  awakened.  And  as  it  is  con- 
spicuous as  a  representative  form  of  government,  which 
form  is  being  more  and  more  adopted  and  extended,  the 
knowledge  thus  acquired  raises  them  to  a  position  where 
they  can  easily  study  and  understand  other  govern- 
ments, and  the  laws  of  civil  government  in  general. 
There  is,  besides,  a  certain  connection  between  this  gov- 
ernment and  that  of  England.  A  certain  political  evo- 
lution brought  it  forth  from  a  limited  monarchy.  The 
teachings  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Milton,  Locke,  Sid- 
ney, Penn  and  others,  united  with  the  experience  in 
colonial  and  local  government  here,  educated  the  people, 
step  by  step,  for  a  government  of  the  people,  by  the 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  391 

people,  for  the  people.  This  connection — this  evolution 
— furnishes  a  very  interesting  and  instructive  opportu- 
nity for  studying  the  progress  of  government,  through 
English  history,  from  savage  despotism  to  the  most 
highly  organized  form  of  modern  free  government. 

A  brief  examination  of  the  settlement  and  early  his- 
tory of  the  United  States,  including,  particularly,  the 
government  of  the  Colonies,  and  their  efforts  towards 
union  for  protection  and  common  good,  serves  as  an 
introduction. 

Advancing  to  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  the 
Revolution  and  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  the  class 
study  the  first  political  organization ;  and  then  proceed 
to  the  Constitution  itself.  It  enters  as  far  as  possible 
into  the  rigorous  necessity  which  forced  each  change  in 
the  organic  law.  The  pupils  are  to  be  led  to  study 
with  interest  the  terse  and  comprehensive  clauses  of 
the  preamble  which  set  forth  the  exigencies  which 
produced  the  Constitution. 

And  here  the  study  of  the  Constitution  proper  begins. 

It  is  found  to  divide  into  three  great  branches.  First, 
the  Legislative,  or  Law  Making;  second,  the  Judicial, 
or  Law  Interpreting ;  third,  the  Executive,  or  Law  En- 
forcing. 

When  the  pupils  have  investigated  each  of  these 
branches  in  detail,  they  are  ready  to  observe  the  delicate 
checks  and  balances  sustained  between  them,  and  the 
mutual  strength  and  support  they  furnish. 

Then  follow  the  prohibitions,  limiting  the  powers  of 
the  general  government, — an  enumeration  of  the  acts 
which  the  government   cannot  do,   except  in  certain 


392  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

emergencies :  such  as  the  suspension  of  the  writ  of 
habeas  corpus ;  interference  in  inter-state  commerce; 
the  appropriation  and  drawing  of  public  money, 
except  as  provided ;  the  creating  of  titles  of  nobility ; 
the  passing  of  bills  of  attainder,  or  ex  post  facto  laws 
and  the  restriction  of  civil  and  religious  freedom ;  i.  e., 
no  religious  test  shall  be  required  as  a  qualification  to 
any  office,  neither  shall  any  law  be  passed  abridging  the 
freedom  of  speech  or  of  the  press ;  and  the  right  of  the 
people  to  keep  and  bear  arms  shall  not  be  infringed. 

Then  follow  the  rights  of  the  states,  such  as  repre- 
sentation in  the  two  houses  of  congress,  privileges  of 
citizenship,  elections,  militia,  federal  protection,  to-wit: 
a  guarantee  of  a  republican  form  of  government;  and 
freedom  from  foreign  invasion  and  domestic  violence. 

Next,  the  subordination  of  states,  their  powers  and 
limitations.  And  finally,  the  several  amendments  of 
the  Constitution,  and  the  events  which  produced  them. 

Occasion  will  be  found  at  every  step  to  refer  to  the 
British  Constitution,  or  to  English  history  or  English 
literature,  as  well  as  to  our  own  history  and  literature ; 
because  all  these  contributed  to  the  Constitution,  in  its 
inception,  and  some  of  them  have  thrown  light  upon  it 
since.  The  great  judicial  decisions  also  elucidate  and 
explain  it,  and  must  be  in  constant  use  in  the  class. 

This  knowledge  of  the  general  government  furnishes 
the  basis  for  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  government 
of  the  states,  and  renders  it  easy  and  simple,  because 
the  general  government  is  usually  the  model  on  which 
they  are  fashioned. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE  SCHOOL.  393 

The  connection  between  the  state  government  and 
the  administration  of  county  and  town  affairs  is  so 
close,  that  they  are  to  be  studied  next.  Great  interest 
may  be  awakened  in  a  class,  over  these  elementary  or 
primary  organizations.  It  is  a  rich  field  in  American 
civil  government. 

Having  reached  this  point  the  attention  is  turned  to 
a  few  principles  of  municipal  law,  e.  g.,  the  distinction 
between  common  and  statute  law,  civil  rights,  personal 
security,  liberty,  private  property,  something  of  the  law 
of  contracts,  marriage,  principal  and  agent,  partnership, 
sales,  gifts,  fraudulent  transfers,  bills  of  exchange,  inter- 
est, insurance,  estates  in  real  property^  deeds  and  mort- 
gages, landlord  and  tenant,  the  distribution  of  property 
after  death  by  statute  and  by  will,  a  little  international 
law,  the  relations  of  nations  at  war  and  at  peace. 

The  class  then  study  and  describe  the  various  offices 
in  the  civil  service,  with  their  powers  and  duties,  from 
the  chief  magistrate  to  the  justice  of  the  peace;  the 
methods  of  courts  of  law,  both  in  mesne  and  final  pro- 
cess; the  methods  and  detail  of  law  making,  both 
judge-made  and  statute  law;  the  officers  of  court  and 
their  duties.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  the  interest  may  be 
heightened  by  personal  reminiscence,  biographical  inci- 
dent, and  by  historic  allusions  to  eminent  persons,  in 
active  official  duty,  both  in  the  United  States  and  other 
countries.  Thus  the  pupils  have  presented  government 
as  a  living,  real  thing.  The  greatest  orator  has  said 
that  his  power  consisted  in  action;  so  government  in 
(iction  in  the  hands  of  living  or  historic  men,  is  taught. 


394  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

Throughout  this  course  of  study,  civil  service  reform 
may  and  should  be  constantly  inculcated.  It  is  the 
golden  moment  in  which  to  teach  that  office  is  a  sacred 
public  trust  which  is  to  seek  the  man  ;  that  patriotism, 
the  public  good  first,  ought  of  right  to  be  the  one  grand 
leading  purpose  of  office  holders ;  that  the  man  who 
perverts  a  public  trust  to  private  uses,  merits  the  con- 
tempt of  mankind,  and  deserves  to  mate  with  traitors ; 
and  that  whoever  neglects  his  duties  in  official  station 
to  secure  his  own  re-election,  is  of  that  class  and  quality. 
So  are  those  persons  who  trade,  compromise  and  bartfer 
their  vote  and  public  influence  for  selfish,  personal  ends, 
whose  votes  are  not  on  their  convictions  and  conscience, 
but  guided  by  their  probable  eff'ect  upon  their  own  for- 
tunes at  the  next  election. 

Walter  Savage  Landor  has  portrayed  the  supreme 
peril  of  political  life  and  ambition.  He  says :  "When 
Satan  would  have  led  our  Savior  into  temptation, 
he  did  not  conduct  Him  where  the  looser  pas- 
sions were  wandering;  he  did  not  conduct  Him 
amid  flowers  and  herbage,  where  a  fall  would  only  have 
been  a  soilure  to  our  frail  human  nature ;  no,  he  led 
Him  up  to  an  exceedingly  high  mountain,  and  showed* 
Him  palaces  and  towers  and  treasures,  knowing  that  it 
was  by  these  alone  that  he  himself  could  have  been  so 
utterly  lost  to  rectitude  and  beatitude.  Our  Savior 
spurned  the  temptation,  and  the  greatest  miracle  was 
accomplished.  After  which,  even  the  father  of  lies  never 
ventured  to  dispute  His  divine  nature." 

What  a  beautiful  model  of  the  just  statesman  is  given 
for  the  instruction  of  American  youth,  by  Daniel  Web- 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  395 

ster,  in  the  character  of  Washington.  He  says  :  "  In 
the  first  place,  all  his  measures  were  right  in  their  intent. 
He  stated  the  whole  basis  of  his  own  great  character, 
when  he  told  the  country,  in  the  homely  phrase  of  the 
proverb,  that  '  honesty  is  the  best  policy.*  One  of  the 
most  striking  things  ever  said  of  him  is  that  *  he  changed 
mankind's  ideas  of  political  greatness.'  To  commanding 
talents  and  success,  the  common  elements  of  such  great- 
ness, he  added  a  disregard  of  self,  a  spotlessness  of  motive, 
a  steady  submissiorT  to  every  public  and  private  duty, 
which  threw  far  into  the  shade  the  whole  crowd  of  vulgar 
great.  The  object  of  his  regard  was  the  whole  country. 
No  part  of  it  was  enough  to  fill  his  enlarged  patriotism. 
His  love  of  glory — so  far  as  that  may  be  supposed  to 
have  influenced  him  at  all — spurned  everything  short 
of  general  approbation.  It  would  have  been  nothing  to 
him,  that  his  partisans  or  his  favorites  outnumbered,  or 
outvoted,  or  outmanaged,  or  outclamored  those  of  other 
leaders.  He  had  no  favorites  ;  he  rejected  all  partisan- 
ship, and  acting  honestly,  for  the  universal  good,  he 
deserved  what  he  so  richly  enjoyed — the  universal  love. 
"  His  principle  it  was  to  act  right,  and  to  trust  the 
people  for  support ;  his  principle  it  was  not  to  follow 
the  lead  of  sinister  and  selfish  ends,  nor  to  rely  on  the 
little  arts  of  party  delusion  to  obtain  public  sanction  for 
such  a  course.  Born  for  his  country  and  for  the  world, 
he  did  not  give  up  to  party  what  was  meant  for  man- 
kind. The  consequence  is,  that  his  fame  is  as  durable 
as  his  principles,  as  lasting  as  truth  and  virtue  them- 
selves. While  the  hundreds  whom  party  excitement 
and  temporary  circumstances,  and  casual  combinations 


S96  THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

have  raised  into  transient  notoriety,  sink  again  like  thin 
bubbles,  bursting  and  dissolving  into  the  great  ocean, 
Washington's  fame  is  like  the  rock  which  bounds  that 
ocean  and  at  whose  feet  its  billows  are  destined  to  break 
harmlessly  forever." 

Another  noble  example  is  found  in  Aristides  the  Just, 
contrasted  with  the  selfish  and  time-serving  Them- 
istocles,  related  with  classical  beauty  in  Plutarch's  lives. 

With  this  foundation,  students  may  go  on  to  compar- 
ative politics.  They  may  seek  in  other  governments, 
first,  the  three  great  branches — Legislative,  Judicial  and 
Executive.  If  they  fail  to  find  either  branch,  then  they 
may  search  for  the  department  which  holds  that  power. 

Representative  government,  and  its  extension  and 
growth  in  the  governments  of  the  world,  is  full  of  inter- 
est and  instruction.  These  investigations  ought  to  be 
carried  out  in  elaborate  written  essays,  to  give  full  and 
permanent  possession  of  the  knowledge  acquired. 

Nothing  will  inspire  greater  respect  for  and  confidence 
in  their  own  government,  than  this  study.  Admiration 
of  the  wisdom,  integrity  and  patriotism  of  the  fathers, 
will  awaken  and  stimulate  in  their  own  bosoms,  greater 
patriotism. 

A  general  survey  of  the  whole  subject,  with  lessons  on 
political  evolution  and  sociology  will  furnish  a  suitable 
conclusion  to  the  foregoing  instruction. 

(See  Webster  and  the  Constitution— Harper,  March,  1877  ; 
State  and  Society  in  Washington — Harper,  March,  1878  ;  Our 
Civil  Service — Harper,  July,  1877;  Instruction  in  Political  Sci- 
ence— Augustine  Jones. — The  above,  as  to  form  of  government, 
has  been,  substantially,  obtained  from  the  last.) 


THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  397     J 


METHOD  IN  LANGUAGE. 


FIRST  STAGE. 


Word  and  separate  sentence-making. 

Ctorrection  of  oral  errors. 

l\ 

'  Color, 

Form, 

Free  oral  expression  of  thought  upon  lessons  in  ■  Size, 

1 

Reading, 

General  Lessons,  etc. 

Copy  work.    (1)  from  board,  (2)  from  book. 

Thought  prominent ;   expression  incidental. 
Separate  sentence-making. 


Correction  of  oral  and  written  errors.  f  Color, 

Form, 
Free  oral  expression  of  thought  upon  lessons  in  -I  Size, 

Copy  work  from  board  and  book.  [  Generaf  Lessons,  etc. 

Dictation  work  in  sentences. 

Expression  in  written  sentence  or  separate  sentences  of  a  thought  obtained 
from  a  sentence  in  reading  book. 


Thought  prominent;  expression  incidental. 
Sentence-making. 


Correction  of  oral  and  written  errors.  f  Color, 

Form, 

Free  oral  expression  of  thought  upon  lessons  in  <  Size, 

Reading, 

Dictation  work  in  sentences.  I.  GeneralLessons.  etc. 

Expression  in  separate  written  sentences  of  thoughts  obtained  from  two 
or  three  sentences  in  reading  book. 

The  making  of  original  separate  sentences  on  position,  qualities  of  ob- 
jects, single  actions,  a  leaf  and  leaves,  a  plant  and  plants,  a  fruit  and 
fruits,  an  animal  and  animals,  a  mineral  and  minerals,  man  and  Ills 
works,  pictures,  etc. 

Thought  prominent ;  expression  incidental. 

All  education  consists  in  the  development  of  thought 
and  expression.  The  thought  must  precede  the  expres- 
sion. This  principle  has  not  been  adhered  to  in  language 
work  sufficiently. 


398  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

The  underlying  principle  that  should  be  kept  in  nriind 
during  the  entire  language  work,  is  that  thought  is  prom- 
inent, while  expression  is  only  incidental.  In  grammar 
work,  however,  the  expression  is  made  prominent  and 
the  thought  explanatory ;  hut  power  to  think  is  the  aim. 
In  the  first  two  years  of  language  the  single  expression 
for  a  given  idea  is  to  be  carefully  and  continually  ob- 
served ;  but  in  the  third  year,  while  this  is  continued, 
variety  of  expression  is  sought.  If  the  teaching  in  these 
years  should  consist  in  the  training  of  expression  without 
regard  to  thought,  the  child's  imitative  powers  alone  are 
cultivated,  while  his  creative  strength  is  allowed  to  re- 
main dormant.  This  change  from  a  single  expression 
for  an  idea  to  a  variety  of  expressions  for  the  same,  should 
be  gradual,  for  *'  Nature  does  nothing  by  leaps,  but  pro- 
ceeds gradually  and  smoothly  from  the  simple  to  the 
complex."  It  is  the  nature  of  the  mind  in  investigating  to 
learn,  first  particulars — soon  it  spontaneously  observes  simi- 
larities— and  then  is  naturally  led  to  generalize  and  classify, 
after  which  it  names  and  gives  definitions.  If  success  is  to  be 
attained  in  the  work,  this  idea  is  to  be  ever  held  in  mind 
— that  during  the  first  three  years'  work,  the  sentences 
are  all  to  be  clear,  simple,  separate  sentences.  Pupils 
should,  not  he  permitted  to  write  connected  sentences,  until  they 
have  Jormed  the  habit  of  good  single  sentences.  In  each  year 
there  should  be  correction  of  oral  and  written  errors 
at  the  exact  time  that  they  are  made.  The  teacher  may 
call  attention  to  the  error,  or  may  have  the  pupils  do  so. 
The  one  who  made  the  error  must  then  repeat  the  sen- 
tence as  he  first  gave  it,  and  then  correctly.  In  this  cor- 
rection,— when  the  error  is  made — the  thought  and  not 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  399 

the  expression  is  uppermost  in  the  mind  ;  but  when  the 
attention  is  called  to  the  correction  of  the  error  the  ex- 
pression then  is  specially  noted.  In  the  free  oral  expres- 
sion of  thought  upon  lessons  in  color,  form,  size,  reading, 
general  lessons,  etc.,  the  ultimate  end  is  training  and  a 
knowledge  of  the  object,  shown  in  the  thoughts  express- 
ed in  regard  to  it.  The  object  should  be  placed  before 
the  child  and  he  be  permitted  to  see  what  he  can,  and 
then  tell  in  definite  separate  sentences  what  he  sees. 
Then  by  judicious  questioning  and  devices  he  can  be  led 
to  see  more.  Thus  he  will  become  skilled  to  observe  and 
think,  and  at  the  same  time  be  learning  many  useful 
and  important  facts. 

Only  one  particular  should  be  presented  at  the  begin- 
ning, as  that  is  Nature's  method  of  procedure.  That  is, 
one  definite  color,  one  form  or  size,  etc.,  is  to  be  taught. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  first  year,  copying  words  and 
sentences  from  the  board  and  also  from  the  book  is  to 
be  begun.  This  will  impress  upon  the  mind  uncon- 
sciously the  form  or  arrangement  in  general  of  the 
elements  of  the  sentence  and  the  modifiers,  the  punctu- 
ation, capitalization  and  other  things  to  be  noticed  in  a 
good  sentence.  In  copying  work  from  the  board  the 
script  will  be  learned ;  and  the  work  is  easier  than  if 
taken  from  the  book,  since  the  sentences  stand  alone, 
disconnected  from  others,  with  which  they  are  connected 
in  the  book.  In  the  second  year  dictation  work  is  begun. 
In  order  that  this  may  not  be  a  leap  from  the  preceding 
year's  work,  it  is  connected  with  the  first  in  that  the 
sentence  is  written  as  usual  upon  the  board,  time  given 
for  its  imprint  on  the  mind,  then  erased  and  given  orally. 


400  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

This  is  continued  for  some  time,  when  the  writing  on 
the  board  is  omitted  and  the  sentences  are  merely  dic- 
tated and  written  from  memory. 

The  written  expression,  by  the  pupil,  of  a  thought 
obtained  from  a  sentence  in  the  reading  book,  is  a  phase 
of  great  value,  on  account  of  the  power  it  gives  both  to 
employ  expression,  and  to  interpret  it. 

This  requires  a  short  period  of  preparatory  work  in 
which  the  pupil  is  to  be  led  to  give  the  thought 
obtained  from  a  sentence  in  the  reading  book,  in 
original  oral  sentences. 

The  nature  of  the  work  would  be : 

1.  To  have  the  pupils  ponder  carefully  the  sentence 
in  order  to  obtain  all  its  contained  or  suggested  thought. 

2.  To  close  the  books  and  then  express  in  original 
oral  sentences  the  thought  or  thoughts  that  the  sentence 
suggests  to  them. 

Their  work  will  at  first,  probably,  exhibit  two  errors : 

a.  Their  oral  sentences  will  be  entirely,  or  largely 
the  language  of  the  book. 

b.  They   will  not  set    forth    all    the  suggested 
thought. 

The  first  work  of  the  teacher  will  therefore  be  to  lead 
them  to  express  the  suggested  thoughts  in  language  as 
original  as  possible. 

The  second  work,  will  be  to  lead  them  to  see  thoughts 
that  are  suggested  by  the  sentence  which  they  did  not 
grasp. 

The  third  work,  will  be  to  lead  them  to  express  all  the 
suggested  thoughts  in  good  separate  original  sentences. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  401 

This  period  of  preparatory  oral  work  is  to  be  followed 
by  similar  work  in  which  the  sentences  given  by  the 
pupils  are  to  be  written. 

If  the  pupils  are  led  to  attempt  to  give  in  written 
sentences  the  thought  as  obtained  from  a  sentence  or 
sentences  without  a  preparatory  stage  in  which  they  are 
taught  to  carefully  gather  all  the  elements  of  thought 
that  are  suggested,  express  them  orally,  and  then  com- 
pare both  language  and  thought  with  that  in  the  book, 
the  results  will  make  manifest  the  general  inability  on 
the  part  of  pupils  either  to  drink  in  at  a  glance  the 
thought  of  a  sentence  or  to  express  in  good  English  a 
a  thought  that  they  possess. 

1LLU8TBATI0N, 
eECOND  YEAR  OHAOE. 

(Average  age  of  children  7^  years.) 

Sentence. —  Under  a  great  tree  in  the  woods,  two  hoys  saw 
a  fine,  large  nut,  and  both  ran  to  get  it,  (McGufifey's  Sec- 
ond Reader,  page  44.) 

With  this  sentence  the  pupils  were  required  : 

1.  To  ponder  it  carefully  in  order  to  comprehend 
all  its  suggested  thoughts. 

2.  To  express  on  the  slate  in  original  sentences,  the 
thoughts  suggested  by  the  sentence  in  the  book. 

3.  To  copy   the  sentences   from   the  slates   upon 
paper. 

The  following  indicate  the  nature  of  the  results : 

27 


402  THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

(^NameJ)  F  ebruary  ig    1886. 
O  ne  day  in  the  fall  two  brothers  went  out  in 
the  forest  and  sow  a  fine  wall-nut  and  both  ran 
after  it. 

o 

February  i  g  1886 
(^Name.) 

O  re  day   in  winter  when  wallnuts  were  om 
the  ground  two     boys  were  at  play   and  they 

saw  a  nut  and  they  all  ran  to  find  it  . 


F  ebruary  ig,  1886 
i^Name.) 

O  nee    in  the  fall  when  the  nuts   were  ripening 
two   boys   saw    a  fine   nut   and  skiped  to  it 
under  a   tree. 


(^Name.)  February,  ig  1886. 

Two  boys  went  in  the  far  est  Ihey  both  saw  a 
fine  nut  and  they  went  to  try  to  get  to  the 
place  first.     It  was   a   wall  -  nut  tree. 


February    ig 
(^Name.) 

T  wo  boys  were  out  in  the  wods  and  thre  was  a 
nut  on  the  ground  and  it  was  in  the  fall. 
They   both  ran  after  the  nut. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  403 

February  ig.i886  . 

(Name.) 

One  summer  day  two   boys   were  in  the  woody 
they  saw  a  7tut  a7td  both  ran  to  get  it. 


February  ig  1886. 
(^Name.) 

In  the  fall  there  were  two  c  hildren  on  the  farm 
and  they  saw  a    fine  wall  mit  and  they  run 
to  get  it. 

o 

(Name.)  ig,i  8 8  6. 

Under  a  big  wall-nut  tree  two  childern  found  a 
big  nice  uut  and  they  both  tired  to  get  it. 
They  went  to  the  woods  in  the  F  all . 


The  work  of  the  teacher,  after  the  sentences  have 
been  prepared,  as  above,  is : 

1.  To  lead  the  children  to  compare  carefully  the 
thoughts  suggested  by  the  sentence  with  those  as  given 
in  each  written  exercise. 

2.  To  compare  as  to  points  on  the  expression  side. 

Indicate  all  points  that  could  be  made  with  the  pupils  con- 
coming  the  given  exercises : 

a.  As  to  the  thought. 

b.  As  to  the  language. 


404  THE  THEORY  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

THIRD   YEAR   GRADE. 

(Time  allowed  for  study  of  the  sentences — ten  minutes.    Aver- 
age of  children  8  years.) 

Sentences. — Squirrels  build  for  themselves  summer  houses. 
These  are  made  of  leaves,  and  sticks,  and  moss.  They  are 
nice  and  cool  for  summer,  but  would  never  do  for  the  winter 
cold  and  snow.     (McGuflfey's  Second  Reader,  page  58,) 

The  requirements  and  conditions  were  the  same  for 
these  sentences  as  for  the  previous  one.  These  pupils, 
as  those  in  the  second  grade,  had  been  given  no  pre- 
vious oral  or  written  work  of  this  nature. 

The  following  are  specimens  of  the  work  done  : 

The  Squirrels. 

Squirrels  build  themselves  houses  that  are 
made  of  leaves,  and  sticks,  and  moss.  They 
would  do  very  nice  for  Summer  but  would  never 
do  for  Winter. 

f      [Name.) 


The  squirrels 

Squirrels  build  them  selver Summer  houses, 
thay  build  their  houses  out  of  sticks,  and  moss, 
they  are  nice  and  cool  for  S  ummer.but  would 
never  do  for  the  winter,  coldund  snow  They  find 
an  old  tree  that  has  o  large  cave  in  it  and  they 
build  themselves  a  house  in  it  for  the  winter,  they 
build  it  of  soft  moss  and  sticks,  they  buildit 
very  nice  and  snug,  and  warm  - 


THE  THEORY  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  405 

The  S.quiels. 

The  Sqtcrrels  build  for  themselvls  houses,  they 
worm  and  sung  they  make  them  with  soft  moss 
and  sticks  they  are  wise  little  people, 

(^Name.) 


The  squirrels. 

Squirrels  build  summer  houses,      T hey  are 
made  of  leaves  and  sticks,  and  moss.    T  hey  are 
very  nice  and   cool  for  the  summer.     But  they 
would  not  do  for  the  winter  cold,  snowy,  and 
grey.  (^Name.) 

o 

The  Squirrels. 
The  summer  houses  that  squirrels  make  for 
themselves  are  not  nice  for  Winter,  but  are  nice 
and  cool  for  summer,  but  would  never  keep  out 
the  cold.       The  houses  are  made  of  slicks  and 
leaves,  and  moss. 
(^Name.) 

o 

Patty  and  the  squirrels. 

6.  Sguirels   build  houses    themselves   houses. 
They  nake  the  out  of  leaves  and  sticks  and 
moss.     These  are  made.    They  are  nice  and 
coot  for  summer,  but  never  do  for  tlte  cold 
and  snow. 
(^Name.) 


406  THE  THEORY  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

The  Squirrels. 
S  quirrels  builad  for  themselves  summer 
house.      These  are  made   of  leaves,    and  sticks, 
and  moss,  thar  are  nice  and  cool  for  Summer, 
but  for  Winter  it  would  never  do. 
{Name.) 

o 

'Patty  And  T  he  Squirrl 
Suirrl  tire  in  a  hoses  made  with  leares,  and 
stickcand  mos  s. 

These  hoses  are  nice  and  cool,  but  woud  never  do 
for  Winter 

{Name.) 


A  Nice  Home 

Squrrls  lives  in  a  nice  house  for  summer. 

But  it  is  not  nice  for  winter. 

S  qurrels  have  two  homes  a  summer  homes  and 

a  winter  honne. 

{Name.) 


T  he  Squirrels 
S  qsuirrels  build  for  them  house. 
T  hey   would  do  for.   ^  B  ut  would 
summer^    B  ut    winter. 
{Name.) 


THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  407 

The  Sqttirrles. 
Squirrles  build  houses  in  the  summer  they 
teke  leaves  a7id  stcilse  and  noss.  Theg  would, 
do  for  summer  but  would  nerve    do  for 
winter  cold  and  snow, 
(^Name,) 


Patie  And  The  Squirrel 

Squirrel  live  in  a  hollow  oh  tree  in  the 
woold 

There  house  is  made  out  of  Sticks  and  moss 
Ne  eat  them  sum  time  When  they  are 
good  and  nice. 

I  like  to  play  with  squirrels  that  are  tome, 
(^Name.) 

This  was  doubtless  an  average  third  year  grade.  These  ex- 
ercises indicate  what  as  to  the  pupils'  power: 

1.  To  interpret  the  thought  in  reading? 

2.  To  express  their  thoughts  in  good  English  ? 

Set  forth  clearly  the  work  that  could  be  done  with  the  class: 

a.  Upon  the  thought  side. 

b.  In  regard  to  the  expression. 

In  the  third  year  this  kind  of  work  becomes  more 
complex  from  the  fact  that  several  sentencen  are  to  be 
reproduced  in  the  same  manner.  In  this  year  variety 
of  expression  for  the  same  thought  or  idea  is  entered 
upon.  Also,  the  making  of  original  separate  sentences 
upon  given  topics  or  objects  is  begun  in  semi- regular 
lessons. 


THE   THEORY   OF,  THE   SCHOOL. 


SECOND  STAGE. 
Connected  sentence-making,  i.e.,  composition. 


Correction  of  oral  and  written  errors. 

Variety  of  expression  for  |  pronoun. 

Connected  sentence-making  on  natural  objects,  plants,  fruits,  animals, 

minerals,  tools  and  manufactured  articles,  geographical  subjects, 

pictures,  actions,  etc. 

Expression  in  connected  written  sentences  of  thoughts  obtained  from  a 
paragraph  in  reading  book 


Variety  of  expression  for  a  given  idea  or  thought. 
Connected  sentence-making. 


Correction  of  oral  and  written  errors. 

(Verb. 
Variety  of  expression  for -<  Adverb. 

(Adjective. 
Connected  sentence-making  on  natural  objects,  plants,  fruits,  animals, 
minerals,  tools  and  manufactured  articles,   geographical  subjects, 
pictures,  actions,  etc. 
Expression  in  connected  written  sentences  of  thoughts  obtained  from 
two  or  more  paragraphs  in  reading  book. 


Variety  of  expression  for  a  given  idea  or  thought. 
Connected  sentence-making. 


C/Orrection  of  oral  and  written  errors. 

Variety  of  expression  for  Phrase. 

Connected  sentence-making  on  natural  objects,  plants,  fruits,  animals, 

minerals,  tools  and  manufactured  articles,   geographical  subjects, 

pictures,  actions,  etc. 
Expression  in  connected  written  sentences  of  the  thoughts  obtained  from 

three  or  more  paragraphs  in  reading  book. 


Variety  of  expression  for  a  given  idea  or  thought. 
Connected  sentence-making.    . 


Correction  of  oral  and  written  errors  j 

-,    .  ,        .               ■       r    i  The  Clause.  ^ 

Variety  of  expression  forj  The  Ellipsis.  '> 

Connected  sentence-making  on  natural  obiects,  plants,  fruits,  animals,  1 

minerals,  tools  and  manufactured  articles,    geographical  subjects,  1 

pictures,  actions,  ete.  \ 

Expression  in  connected  written  sentences  of  the  thoughts  obtained  from  i 

a  whole  selection  in  reading  book.  \ 


Variety  of  expression  for  a  given  idea  or  thought. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE  SCHOOL.  409 

The  language  work,  which  was  incidental  in  the  first 
and  second  years,  and  semi-incidental  in  the  third  year, 
becomes  regular  and  formal  in  the  fourth  year. 

The  work  throughout  the  period  extending  from  the 
fourth  to  the  eight  year,  is  to  be  based  largely  upon  two 
prevailing  thoughts : 

1.  The  fundamental  ideas  of  grammar  are: 
a.  Use. 

6.  Classification  based  upon  use.  For  example, 
the  word  mountain  is  classed  as  a  noun,  by  reason  of  its 
use  in  naming  an  object,  but  in  the  phrase — a  mountain 
stream,  on  the  ground  of  its  use  in  limiting  the  word 
stream^  it  is  classed  as  an  adjective.  The  idea  of  iLse  is 
the  final  appeal  in  all  questions  in  grammar,  and  pro- 
ficiency in  this  subject  requires  skill  in  determining  the 
exact  use  of  expressions. 

2.  The  fundamental  idea  of  composition  and  rhe- 
toric is  appropriateriess.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  The 
monks  yielded  to  the  Pope;  but  John,  defying  the 
Pontiff",  drove  the  monks  from  the  monks'  abbeys," 
grammar  does  not  question  whether  it  is  better  to  use 
the  word  Pontiff  instead  of  repeating  the  word  Pope; 
nor  does  it  ask  whether  one  should  use  the  word  them 
instead  of  the  second  word  monks ;  neither  does  gram- 
roar  inquire  as  to  the  comparative  merits  of  the  words 
monksi'  and  their^  as  limiting  the  word  abbeys.  But  all 
these  questions  must  be  considered  in  composition  and 
rhetoric,  for  they  deal  with  not  only  the  grammatical 
expression  of  thought,  but  especially  with  the  com- 
parative appropriateness  of  different  grammatical  ex- 
pressions. 


410  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

It  is  not  to  be  forgotten  that  language  as  a  subject  of 
school  instruction,  is,  like  all  other  subjects,  a  means 
and  not  an  end ;  that  it  is  taught,  not  for  its  own  sake, 
but  for  the  sake  of  the  mind  considering  it.  It  is  an 
instrument  for  mind  training.  The  highest  aim  of  lan- 
guage work  is  to  train  the  mind  to  think.  The  second  aim 
is  to  master  language  as  an  instrument,  in  order  that 
thought  may  be  expressed  and  interpreted  with  accu- 
racy and  facility.  A  third  design  is  to  lay  the  foun- 
dation for  an  intelligent  study  of  grammar,  composition, 
and  rhetoric,  as  succeeding  subjects  of  study ;  language 
as  here  used  being  limited  to  elementary  work,  and  not 
including  these  subjects,  which  are  of  course,  included 
in  the  general  term — language. 

Language  lessons,  being  fundamental  to  grammar, 
composition  and  rhetoric,  as  indicated  in  the  third  pur- 
pose, should  be  to  a  considerable  extent  determined  by 
the  underlying  ideas  of  those  subjects,  i.  e.,  use  and 
appropriateness.  These  being  the  ideas,  also,  that  pre- 
dominantly pertain  to  language  as  an  instrument  of 
thought,  they  are  the  guiding  ones,  considering  language 
work,  as  to  its  three-fold  aim.  The  specific  province  of 
language  in  the  grades  from  the  fourth  to  the  eighth — 
the  period  preceding  text-book  grammar — would,  there- 
fore, seem  to  be  to  thoroughly  ground  the  pupil  in : 

1.  The  use  of  expressions. 

2.  Fullness  and  variety  of  expression,  as  a  basis  for 
future  classifications. 

3.  The  power  to  weigh  expressions  as  to  appropri- 
ateness. 

It  is  evident  from  what  has  been  given,  that  the  gen- 


THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  411 

eral  process  of  work  would  involve  in  regard  to  each 
point  in  language  the  substitution  of  an  equivalent  ex- 
pression for  a  given  expression. 

Consider,  for  example,  the  sentence,  "The  monks 
yielded  to  the  Pope,  but  John  defied  the  Pope." 

The  point  in  language  that  the  child  is  to  be  led  to 
comprehend,  is  that  the  English  language  provides  two 
equivalent  expressions  for  the  word  Pope  as  used  in  the. 
second  place,  i.  e.  Pontiff  and  him.  Indeed,  two  do  not 
at  all  exhaust  the  equivalent  expressions  for  the  term 
given. 

The  various  steps  in  the  work,  in  dealing  with  the 
point  are : 

1.  To  lead  the  pupils  to  determine  the  exact  nature 
and  use  of  the  expression  given.  (The  word  Pope  in 
the  second  case.) 

2.  To  lead  the  pupils  to  make  the  substitution.  As 
.follows,  if  the  point  in  language  is  the  use  of*  the  pro- 
noun for  the  noun — ''  The  monks  yielded  to  the  Pope, 
but  John  defied  him."  Thus,  if  the  point  should  be 
the  use  of  a  noun  of  equal  extent  for  another  noun — 
"  The  monks  yielded  to  the  Pope,  but  John  defied  the 
Pontiff."  (Both  points  should  not  be  taught  at  the  same 
stage,  the  one  being  under  substitutions  of  the  pronoun, 
and  the  other  of  the  noun.  The  terms  noun  and  pro- 
noun need  not  be  used). 

3.  To  lead  the  pupils  to  determine  the  exact  nature 
and  use  of  the  suVjstituted  expression. 

4.  To  have  the  pupils  weigh  accurately  the  two  ex- 
pressions— Pope  and  him;  or  Pope  and  Pontiff,  by  the 
idea  of  appropriateness. 


412  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

THE  SERIES  OF  EXERCISES. 

1.  In  the  first  exercise,  the  teacher  explains,  by- 
means  of  a  set  of  examples,  a  given  substitution. 

2.  In  the  second  exercise,  the  teacher  tests  the  pupils, 
by  means  of  a  second  set  of  examples,  upon  the  substi- 
tution made  in  the  first  exercise. 

3.  In  the  third  exercise,  the  pupils  are  required  to 
select  from  their  text-books  examples  in  which  the  same 
substitution  may  be  made,  and  to  make  the  substitu- 
tion. 

4.  In  the  fourth  exercise,  the  pupils  are  required  to 
select  from  newspapers  and  literature  in  general,  exam- 
ples in  which  the  same  substitution  may  be  made,  and 
to  make  the  substitution. 

5.  The  fifth  exercise  is  three-fold  in  its  nature : — 

a.  The  preparation  by  the  pupils  of  an  original 
exercise  in  writing. 

b.  The  discussion  of  all  the  substitutions  previ- 
ously considered  that  may  be  made  in  the  exercise. 

c.  The  re- writing  of  the  exercise,  in  which  re- writ- 
ing all  substitutions  that  are  demanded  by  appropriate- 
ness or  fitness  are  to  be  made. 

The  fifth  exercise  should  be  given  from  five  to  ten  tinies  dur- 
ing the  year.     It  involves  :  — 

In  the  Fourth  Year  Grade,  compositions,  narrative  in  form, 
and  letter-writing. 

In  the  Fifth  Year  Grade,  compositions,  descriptive  in  form, 
and  letter-writing. 

In  the  Sixth  and  Seventh  Year  Grades,  compositions,  both  nar- 
rative and  descriptive  in  form,  biographical  sketches  and  letter- 
writing. 


THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  418 

The  substitutions  presented  in  the  outline  for  the  various 
grades  are  considered  as  suitable  in  difficulty  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  pupils,  but  if  careful  work  upon  a  given  substitu- 
tion proves  it  to  be  too  difficult  for  the  grade  to  which  it  is 
assigned,  it  should  be  deferred  until  the  pupils  are  better  fitted 
to  deal  with  it. 

The  outline  of  illustrations  is  not  to  be  considered  as  present- 
ing all  the  forms  of  substitutions  that  the  language  affords,  but 
merely  those  that  are  most  essential. 

The  examples  that  have  been  selected  to  illustrate  the  out- 
line are  not,  in  the  main,  so  simple  as  those  that  should  be  pre- 
sented to  the  pupils. 

VAEIKTY  OF  EXPBB88ION. 
ILLUmiATION8. 

FOUMTH    VtAK. 

Suistitutums  /or  Ncun. 

1.  Noun. 

Of  equal  extent. 
He  boasted  of  his  feats  and  compared  them  to 
the  feeds  of  ancient  heroes.     Exploits. 
Of  greater  extent. 

He  was  extremely  fond  of  coffee,  and  often 
praised  coffee.     That  beverage. 

Of  collective  nouns  for  class  nouns. 

He  welcomed  his  tenants.     Tenantry. 
Abstract  nouns  for  class  nouns. 
Young  people  are  rash. 
Youth  is  rash. 

2.  Pronoun. 
Personal. 

An   Englishman's  house  is    an   Ekglishman^a 
castle.    His. 


414                         THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  ] 

Indefinite.  ^ 

Strange  sounds  frighten  a  person.     One.  \ 

Relative.  \ 

She  walked  by  the  side   of  her  father;    her  i 

father  walked  on  in  silence.     Who.  \ 

Demonstrative.  j 

Though  he  was  a  valiant  soldier,  he  was  not  a  j 

valiant  soldier  alone.     He  was  not  this  alone.  j 

Pronominal  adjectives.  \ 

Here  are  some    cherries.    You   may  have  two 

cherries.     Two.  '\ 

3.  The  Noun  Phrase.  ] 
The  better  part  of  valor  is  discretion.     Is  to  he  dis-  j 

creet.  j 

4.  The  noun  clause.                           '  I 
England's  wealth  is  well  known.     That  England  is  \ 

wealthy,  is  well  known.  \ 

Substitutions  for  Pronoun.  % 

1.  Reverse  of  substitutions  for  noun  in  so  far  as 
they  relate  to  pronouns.  \ 

2.  Noun  phrase  or  Infinite.  I 
To  do  this  is  brave,  but  iJt  is  not  wise.     But  to  do  j 

this  is  not  wise.  I 

3.  Noun  clause.  ; 
He  declared  that  their  leader  was  slain,  but  they  ] 

would  not  believe  it.     Would  not  believe  that  their  leader  \ 

was  slain.  i 


Voice. 


FIFTH    YEAR. 

Substitutions /or  Verb, 


Soldiers  filled  Newburg.    Newburg  was  filled  by 
soldiers. 


THE  THEORY  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  415 

Substitutions  /or  Adverb. 

1.  Adverbial  Phrase. 

It  has  rained  incessantly  all  the  week. 

It  has  rained  without  cessation  all  the  week. 

2.  Adverbial  clause. 

I  am  contented  here. 

I  am  contented  where  I  am. 

Substitutions  for  Adjective. 

1.  Noun. 
Possessive. 

This  was  said  with  maternal  pride.     A  mother'' 8 
pride. 

2.  Adjective  phrase. 
This  is  a  steel  pen. 
A  pen  of  steel. 

3.  Participial  phrase. 

The  public  burdens  are  heavy.     Burdens  home 
by  the  public. 

4.  Adjective  clause. 
He  has  powerful  friends.     Friends  who  are  power- 


ful. 


SIXTH    rlAR. 

Suittitution* /or  tho  Phrase. 

1.  The  Noun  Phrase  replaced  by — 
Nouns. 

To  be  just  is  more  important  than  to  be  generous. 

Justice  is  more  important  than  generosity. 
Noun  Clause. 

To  obey  is  their  only  safety. 

That  they  should  obey  is  their  only  safety. 


416  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

2.  The  Adjective  Phrase  replaced  by — 
Adjectives. 

The  house  of  my  uncle  was  destroyed.    My  nucleus 
house  was  destroyed. 

She  wore  a  dress  of  bitter 
She  wore  a  blue  dress. 
Nouns. 

In  apposition. 

Having  shared  in  his  disasters,  were  they  not  to 
share  in  his  triumphs  ? 

Sharers  in  his  disasters,  etc. 
Used  as  an  adjective. 
This  ring  is  of  gold. 
This  is  a  gold  ring. 
Adjective  Clauses. 
The  crime  of  Sunderland  was  never  forgiven. 

The  crime  which  Sunderland  committed  was  never 
forgiven. 

Adverbial  Clauses. 

The  judges,  holding  their  office  by  favor  of  the  hing^ 
were  obsequious. 

As  the  judges  held  their  office  by  favor  of  the  king, 
they  were  obsequious. 

Co-ordinate  expressions. 

The  island,  being  encircled  by  a  coral  reef  was  very 
difficult  of  approach. 

The  island  was  encircled  by  a  coral  reef  and  was 
very  difficult  of  approach. 

3.  The  Adverbial  Phrase,  replaced  by — 
Adverbs. 

Rizzio  was  murdered  in  this  room.    Was  mur- 
dered here. 


THE  THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  417 

Adverbial  Clauses. 

The  prince  was  found  in  the  fiercest  of  the  battle. 

The  prince  was  found  where  the  battle  was  fiercest 
Infinitives. 

He  was  pleased  on  hearing  of  the  decision. 

He  was  pleased  to  hear  of  the  decision. 
Co-ordinate  Expressions. 

After  a  hard  struggle^  he  at  length  recovered. 

He  struggled  hard  and  at  length  recovered. 

SEVENTH    YEAR. 

SuistitutioHs  /or  the  Cla'uie. 

1.  Noun  Clause  replaced  by — 
Nouns. 

Thai  you  were  weak  was  your  excuse.     Weakness 
was  your  excuse. 

Noun  Phrases. 

That  one  should  be  so  afflicted  is  a  great  misfortune. 
To  he  so  afflicted  is  a  great  misfortune. 

2.  Adjective  clause  replaced  by — 
Adjectives. 

A  man  who  is  diligent^  will  succeed. 
A  diligent  man  will  succeed. 
Adjectives  Phrases. 

He  was  a  man  whose  integrity  was  unquestioned. 
He  was  a  man  of  unquestioned  integrity. 
Co-ordinate  Expressions. 

His  schemes,  which  were  very  ambitious^  were  never 
carried  out.  His  ichemes  were  very  ambitiouSf  but  were 
never  carried  out. 


418  THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

3.  The  Adverbial  Clause  replaced  by — 
Adverbs. 

I  shall  remain  where  I  am. 

I  shall  remain  here. 
Adverbial  Phrases. 

Coblentz  stands  where  the  Moselle  joins  the  Rhine. 

Coblentz  stands  at  the  junction  of  the  Rhine  and 
Moselle. 

Co-ordinate  Expressions. 

When  she  looked  up,  she  saw  it  approaching. 

She  looked  up  and  saw  it  approaching. 

1.  In  Noun  Positions. 
After  adjectives. 
The  future  shall  obliterate  the  past. 

Future  time,  etc. 

After  possessive  case. 

I  stopped  at  the  grocer^ s.     Store. 
Pronouns  as  subjects  of  imperative  verbs. 

Spare  my  eyes ! 

Spare  you  my  eyes  ! 
Pronouns  as  subjects  of  verbs  in  other  moods. 

Thank  you. 

/thank  you. 
"  To  "  of  infinitive  omitted. 

Better  be  dead. 

To  be  dead  would  be  better. 

Bid  him  go. 

Bid  him  to  go. 
Object  omitted. 

Heat  expands. 

Heat  expands  substances. 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  419 

2.  In  Predicate. 

A  ministering  angel  thou ! 
A  ministering  angel  art  thou ! 

3.  In  Adjective  Modifiers. 

The  President  resides  in  the  White  House. 
The  President  of  the  United  States^  etc. 

4.  In  Adverbial  Modifiers. 
Preposition  omitted. 

He  waited  an  hour. 
He  waited  during  (or  for)  an  hour. 
Noun  omitted  in  adverbial  phrases. 
I  have  never  seen  him  since.    Since  that  time, 

5.  In  noun  Clauses. 
"That"  omitted. 

I  hope  you  will  succeed. 
I  hope  that  you  will  succeed. 

6.  In  Adjective  clauses. 

"  That,"  as  object,  omitted. 

Show  me  the  passage  you  quoted. 

Show  me  the  passage  that  you  quoted. 
Preposition  omitted. 

There  was  hardly  an  hour  that  something  did 
not  happen. 

There  was  hardly  an  hour  that  something  did 
not  happen  in  (or  during). 

Preposition  and  relative  omitted. 

The  moment  I  saw  it,  I  remembered  it. 

In  the  moment  ai  which  I  saw  it,  I  remembered 


it. 


Antecedent  omitted. 

Whom  the  gods  love  die  young. 
Those  whom  the  gods  love,  etc. 


420  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

7.  In  Adverbial  Clauses. 

That  is  important  if  true. 
That  is  important  if  it  is  true. 
Speak  as  distinctly  as  you  can. 
As  you  can  speak  distinctly. 
He  is  taller  than  I. 
He  is  taller  than  I  am  tall 

8.  In  Compound  Sentences. 
Of  common  elements. 

He  came  yesterday  and  returned  to-day.  He 
came  yesterday  and  he  returned  to-day. 

I  take  this ;  you  that.     You  take  that. 

Their  welfare  pleased  him  and  their  cares  dis- 
tressed. 

Their  welfare  pleased  him  and  their  cares  dis- 
tressed him. 

Of  the  conjunction. 

Send  out  more  horses;  scour  the  country 
round ;  hang  those  that  talk  of  fear. 

Send  out  more  horses  and  scour  the  country 
round ;  and  hang  those  that  talk  of  fear. 
Of  two  or  more  common  elements. 

Queen  Elizabeth,  knew  instinctively  how  far 
she  could  go  and  what  she  could  do. 

Queen  Elizabeth  knew  instinctively  how  far 
she  could  go  and  Queen  Elizabeth  knew  instinctively  what 
she  could  do. 


i2 


The  structure  of  the  sentence. 

r ^ _ 


Correction  of  oral  and  written  errors. 

Expression  in  connected  written  sentences  of  the  thought  obtained 

from  a  selection  in  the  reading  book. 
The  thought  and  its  elements. 
The  sentence  and  its  elements. 
Parsing  With  {Tg|P-;-^Jp^e^ch.^^_^,, 


Generalization,  Definition  and  Classification. 


THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  421 

The  oral  grammar  stage  may  be  considered  under : — 

Purpose. 

Central  Thought. 

Scope. 

General  Method. 

Order  of  Instruction. 

1.  The  purpose  is  to  train  the  pupil  by  giving  him  a 
conception  of  the  nature  of  the  parts  of  speech  and  their 
principal  inflections. 

2.  The  central  thought  is  that  grammar  should  be 
presented  as  a  body  of  results  obtained  from  the  obser- 
vation of  language,  and  not  as  a  collection  of  rules  exer- 
cising an  arbitrary  and  mysterious  power  over  language 
from  without. 

3.  The  scope  includes : — 

a.  The  thought  and  its  elements. 

b.  The  simple  sentence  and  its  elements. 

c.  The  parts  of  speech. 

d.  The  principal  inflections. 

e.  Parsing. 

4.  The  general  method  : 

a.  The  method  is  to  be  oral  and  is  to  proceed 
analytically,  i.  e.,  it  is  not  to  impart  rules  and  apply 
these  as  if  language  were  the  product  of  grammar,  but 
is  to  attain  all  results  by  the  pupil's  own  induction  upon 
examples  of  expression  submitted  to  him  for  examin- 
ation. 

b.  The  starting  point  is  to  be  the  thought  and  the 
simple  sentence,  on  the  ground  that  the  parts  of  speech 
can  be  adequately  illustrated  only  by  reference  to  their 


422  THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

whole ;  by  their  use  in  which,  their  nature  may  be  deter- 
mined. 

c.  The  explanation  of  grammatical  forms  must  be 
based  on  an  understanding  of  the  meaning.  The  nature 
of  all  classes  of  expressions  must,  therefore,  be  made 
familiar  to  the  pupil  before  their  terms  are  used. 

d.  Throughout  this  stage,  the  language  presented 
for  the  pupil's  observation  should  be  mainly  furnished 
orally  by  the  teacher  and  the  pupils  ;  for  the  reason  that 
such  illustrations  are  more  familiar  and  interesting  than 
those  drawn  from  books. 

5.  The  order  of  instruction : 

a.  With  parts  of  speech. 

Observing  the  logical  succession,  the  following  order 
of  procedure  may  be  suggested  : 

(1.)  The  presentation  of  sentences  containing  a 
given  part  of  speech. 

(2.)  Investigation  of  the  nature  and  use  of  the 
part  of  speech  being  considered. 

(3.)  Other  examples  of  the  same  part  of  speech 
furnished  by  the  pupils. 

(4.)  The  application  of  the  name. 

(5.)  Additional  examples  furnished  by  the 
pupils,  together  with  the  reason  for  their  being  such. 

(6.)  Construction  of  definition.  * 

(7.)  Memorizing  of  definition. 

b.  With  inflections. 

These,  as  the  parts  of  speech,  may  be  best  presented 
through  the  sentence  ;  e.  g. — 
(1.)  Number. 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  423 

(a.)  Present  a  series  of  sentences  in  pairs,  each 
pair  containing  a  given  verb  and  subject,,  but  dififering 
in  the  number  of  the  subjects. 

(b.)  Consideration  of  the  use  and  form  of  the 
words. 

(c.)  Additional  examples  given  by  teacher 
and  pupils. 

(2.)  Case.  This  may  be  presented  in  a  similar 
manner.  It  is  well,  however,  to  employ  pronouns  in 
order  to  have  the  assistance  of  change  of  form  in  lead- 
ing to  a  comprehension  of  the  relation. 

(3.)  Tense.  In  explaining  this,  some  such 
order  as  the  following  may  be  observed : 

(a.)  An  example  involving  the  first  person 
may  be  given ;  as,  /  write  the  word. 

(b.)  Obtain  other  examples  in  which  the 
same  verb  form  is  used ;  as,  with  you,  (sing.)  we^  you^  (pi.) 
they.  Also  examples  in  which  the  other  form  is  used ; 
as  with  he^  she  and  it. 

The  observation  of  these  examples  will  fix  the  pre- 
vailing identity  and  the  single  difference  which  mark 
the  present  tense.  In  similar  manner  the  other  tenses 
may  be  considered. 

Founded  on  like  observation  of  sentences  the  pupil 
may  be  led,  in  dealing  with  the  adjective  and  the  ad- 
verb, to  see  that  they  are  not  inflected  for  number,  case, 
etc.,  but  only  for  comparison. 

c.   With  parking. 
An  efficient  instrument  in  grounding  the  pupil  in  a 


424  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

knowledge  of  the  parts  of  speech  and  their  principal 
inflections,  is  the  exercise  termed  parsing. 

Since,  however,  it  deals  with  the  relations  of  words 
to  other  words,  it  involves  the  element  of  syntax,  and 
is  employed  more  largely  in  the  succeeding  stage.  It, is 
desirable,  however,  to  consider  in  connection  with  this 
stage  certain  features  in  regard  to  parsing ;  as — 

The  condition  of  the  pupil  as  to  syntax. 

The  application  of  parsing. 

The  marks  of  good  parsing. 

The  condition  of  the  pupil  in  regard  to  syntax  is  that  the 
subject  is  a  matter  of  habit  with  him  and  he  has  a  prac- 
tical knowledge  of  the  subject,  but  is  not  possessed  of 
its  rules.  He  stands  now  in  the  same  relation  to  the 
rules  of  syntax  that  he  did  at  the  beginning  of  the 
stage  in  regard  to  the  parts  of  speech,  and  the  method 
of  attaining  a  knowledge  of  the  rules  of  syntax  is 
essentially  the  same  as  that  employed  in  learning  the 
parts  of  speech.  Each  syntactical  relation  should  be 
illustrated  by  means  of  sentences  exemplifying  it. 

The  application  of  parsing  under  any  given  rule  of 
syntax  is  two-fold : 

To  trace  the  application  of  the  rule  within  examples 
arranged  for  the  purpose. 

To  trace  the  application  of  the  rule  in  passages  from 
the  reader. 

The  marks  of  good  parsing  are  four : — 
That  the  procedure  should  be  from  the  general  to  the 
particular. 


THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  425 

That  the  process  should  be  the  work  of  the  pupils 
themselves,  and  not  dependent  on  reiterated  questions 
at  each  step. 

That  the  order  of  parsing  words  should  be  that  of 
logical  connection. 

That  the  parsing  should  deal  mainly  with  the  critical 
words  in  the  structure  of  the  sentence. 


•*->>^^^<^>^ 


CHAPTER  IX. 


THE  RECITATION. 


"  Kindness  adds  sweetness  to  everything.  It  is  kindness  that  makes  life's 
capabilities  to  blossom,  and  paints  them  in  cheery  hues,  and  endows  them 
with  their  invigorating  fragrance.  Whether  it  waits  on  superiors,  or  minis- 
ters to  inferiors,  or  disports  itself  with  equals,  its  work  is  marked  by  a  pro- 
digality which  the  strictest  discretion  can  not  blame.  It  does  unnecessary 
work,  which,  when  done,  looks  the  most  necessary  work  that  could  be  done* 
If  it  goes  to  soothe  sorrow,  it  does  more  than  soothe  it.  If  it  relieves  a  want, 
it  cannot  do  so  without  doing  more  than  relieve  it.  Even  where  it  is  econom- 
ical in  what  it  gives,  it  is  not  economical  in  the  gracefulness  with  which 
it  gives.  The  secret  impulse  out  of  which  kindness  acts  is  an  instinct  which 
is  the  noblest  part  of  ourselves,  the  most  undoubted  remnant  of  the  image  of 
God,  which  was  given  us  at  first.  It  is  the  nobility  of  man.  It  runs  up  into 
eternal  mysteries.  It  is  a  divine  thing,  rather  than  a  human,  because  it 
springs  from  the  soul  of  man,  just  at  the  point  where  the  divine  image  is 
graven  deepest." 


"  A  Loving  heart  is  the  beginning  of  all  knowledge.  This  it  is  that  opens 
the  whole  mind,  and  quickens  every  faculty  of  the  intellect  to  do  its  fit 
work,"  — Caklyle. 


THE  SCHOOL. 


"  School  is  the  effort  to  bring  the  scholar  to  the  right 
consciousness  of  the  nature  and  inner  life  of  things  and 
of  himself;  to  teach   him  to  know,  and  to  make  him 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  427 

conscious  of,  the  inner  relation  of  things  to  each  other, 
to  the  scholar,  and  to  the  living  cause  and  clear  unity 
of  all  things,— to  God." 

The  school  assumes  various  phases : — 

The  Kindergarten. 

The  Common  School. 

The  High  School. 

The  College. 

The  University. 

The  Industrial  School. 

Set  forth  the  scope,  and  the  peculiar  function  of  each. 
THE  COMMON  SCHOOL. 
INSTRUMENTS. 

The  instruments  of  the  child's  education  in  the  com- 
mon school  are  the  influences  upon  and  modifications  of 
his  own  self-conscious  and  self-active  nature  through : 

1.  Physical  surroundings. 

2.  Laws  of  the  school. 

3.  Branches  of  study. 

4.  The  teacher. 

What  educational  principles  may  be  evolved  from  the  truth 
that  the  thing  being  dealt  with — the  child's  mind — is  Klf-oonr 
$cunu,  and  telf -active  f 

PHYSICAL  SURROUNDINQS.      • 

1.  Seating. 

a.  Size  of  desks. 

b.  Arrangement. 

2.  Light. 

a.  Its  two-fold  end. 


428                        THE   THEORY  OF  THE   SCHOOL.  \ 

h.  Best  mode  of  admitting  light.  \ 

c.  Blinds. 

d.  Tint  of  walls.  \ 

3.  Ventilation.  \ 

i 

a.  The  ceiling.  J 

h.  Arrangements  of  the  windows.  ;, 

c.  Escape  flues.  i 

d.  Expedients.  i 

e.  Causes  of  impure  air.  •  ^ 
(1.)  Respiration.  | 
(2.)  Combustion.  i 
(3.)  Uncleanliness.  \ 

f.  Effects  of  impure  air.  | 

4.  Temperature.  i 

a.  Object  of  heating.  i 

b.  Average  temperature  of  a  room.  | 

5.  Site  of  school  building.  \ 
a.  General  nature.  \ 

6.  Play-ground.  1 
a.  General  nature.  ^ 

7.  Out-door  exercise.  - 

a.  Object.  | 

b.  Kinds.  j 

8.  Intermissions.  | 
a.  Object.  j 

The  physical  surroundings  in  addition  to  their  bear-  1 

ing  upon  health  tend  to  educate  the  child  in  three  | 
respects : 

a.  If  the  building  and  grounds  are  arranged  and  I 

kept  in  order,  habits  of  neatness  and  order  will  be  uncon-  i 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  429    ; 

sciously  implanted.  j 

b.  If  they  are  comfortable  and  pleasant,  the  pleas-  i 
urable  emotions  will  be  stimulated,  thus  favoring  mental  | 
effort.  ; 

What  law  of  mind  underlies  this  thought  ?  \ 

c.  The  surroundings  will,  if  the  grounds  and  the  j 
mural  decorations  exhibit  taste,  educate  the  sesthetic  ] 
nature  of  the  child. 

THE  LAWS  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  (Page  168.)  j 

These  are  an  educative  influence  in  that  the  pupil  is  I 
required  to  conform  to  them.  \ 

What  law  of  mind  is  ground  for  the  thought  that  obedience  \ 
to  them  is  educative  ?  ^ 

The  child  obtains  from  these  laws  a  more  rational  ] 
education  if  he  is  led  to  see  them  as  they  are — as  certain  ] 
laws  and  conditions  of  his  own  spiritual  nature  made  j 
external.  He  will  then  of  his  own  accord  place  himself  J 
in  harmony  with  them. 

THE    BRANCHES  OF    STUDY.  ^ 

THUB  OBGANIC  RELATION. 

In  considering  the  branches  of  study  as  instruments  \ 
of  education,  one  needs  to  consider  four  root  thoughts,  ] 
out  of  which  the  true  conception  of  their  organic  rela-  \ 
tion  arises.  Every  act  of  the  human  mind  is  character-  ] 
ized  and  distinguished  by  the  presence  and  predomi-  I 
nance  of  one  or  another  of  the  elements,  intellectualt  ■ 
emotional  or  volitional)  yet  it  is  also  true  that  the  mind  \ 
by  its  self-active  power,  *  springs  at  once  along  the  com- 
pleted curve  of  its  capacities.'    That  is,  while  it  is  true  ! 


430  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  • 

that  every  act  of  mind  is  pre-eminently  an  act  of  know- 
ing, feeling  or  willing,  yet  it  is  nevertheless  true  that 
along  with  and  involved  in  this  predominant  element 
may  be  detected  the  presence  of  the  two  other  elements. 

Among  these  three  elements,  there  exists  the  relation 
of  dependence  in  that  the  element  of  knowing  must 
precede  that  of  feeling,  and  knowing  and  feeling  that  of 
willing. 

So  pre-eminently  one,  however,  is  an  act  of  mind, 
that  no  one  of  these  elements  can  be  called  forth  and 
exercised  without  necessitating  the  exercise  of  the  others. 
If  the  intellectual  element  is  to  be  called  into  superior 
activity,  it  can  only  be  done  by  stimulating  the  element 
of  feeling  into  a  high  degree  of  interest  concerning  the 
object  to  which  the  intellect  is  applied,  or  the  ends  for 
which  it  works,  and  by  concentrating,  through  the  will, 
all  the  energies  of  the  mind  and  directing  them  into  a 
harmonious  action.  This  conception  of  an  act  of  mind  and 
itspeculiar  characteristics^  is  thefirst  of  the  four  root  thoughts. 

The  second  is,  that  every  act  of  the  Divine  Mind  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  same  characteristics,  differing  only  in 
degree.  It  may  be  asserted  that  this  proposition  expresses 
knowledge  which  transcends  man's  power.  Some  may 
consider  that  while  it  is  true  that  man  through  con- 
sciousness may  discover  these  characteristics  as  pertain- 
ing to  an  act  of  his  own  mind,  he  has  no  adequate 
avenue  through  which  to  determine,  with  any  degree  of 
certainty,  the  characteristics  of  an  act  of  the  Divine 
Mind.    The  reply  to  this  is  two-fold : 

1.  It  is  impossible  for  man  to  conceive  of  the  Divine 


/THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  431 

Mind  as  possessing  powers  more,  or  less,  or  other  than 
those  of  knowing,  feeling  and  willing ;  or  to  conceive  of 
an  act  of  the  Divine  Mind  as  being  different  from  that  of 
the  human  mind,  except  in  degree. 

2.  The  nature  of  the  Scriptures  themselves  tends 
to  establish  the  identity  in  kind  between  the  human 
and  the  Divine  Mind. 

When  it  is  said  that  God  breathed  into  man  the  breath 
of  life,  the  meaning,  it  may  be  held,  is  that  he  endowed 
him  with  a  life  kindred  to  his  own.  The  expression 
that  God  created  man  in  his  own  image,  in  its  deepest 
import  must  imply  that  God,  being  a  Spirit,  imaged  in 
man,  in  a  spiritual  way,  the  characteristics  and  attri- 
butes of  The  Divinity ;  although  in  man,  the  Divine 
powers  are  but  imperfectly  and  faintly  expressed.  It  is 
sometimes  maintained  that  the  idea  of  the  Trinity  is 
only  a  peculiar  indication  of  the  three-fold  power  of 
the  Absolute ;  that  the  Divine  Mind  acting  with  the  voli- 
tional element  predominant  is  the  Father;  with  the 
intellectual  element  predominating,  the  Holy  Spirit; 
with  the  sensibilities  in  the  ascendency,  the  Son, 

This  three-fold  attitude  of  the  Divine  Mind  is  stiU 
more  strongly  indicated  in  the  dealings  of  God  with 
with  His  people.  In  the  patriarchal  times,  God  is  seen 
manifesting  Himself  to  His  people  predominantly  as 
will.  When  His  nature  was  set  forth  in  His  law  to  the 
people,  there  was  a  manifestation  of  the  God-head  as 
predominantly  intellectual,  although,  according  to  the 
organic  unity  of  all  spirit,  feeling  and  volition  were  in- 
volved. 


432  THE   THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

When,  in  the  progress  of  His  government,  God  put 
Himself  forth  as  Incarnate,  it  was  the  manifestation  of 
Himself  as  pre-eminently  feeling,  though  at  the  same 
time,  highly  intellectual  and  strong  in  the  power  of  His 
will.  It  was  however,  eminently  the  reign  of  love. 
These  and  many  other  evidences  in  Holy  Writ  tend  to 
establish  that  every  act  of  the  Divine  Mind  is  charac- 
terized and  distinguished  by  the  presence  and  predomi- 
nance of  one  or  another  of  the  intellectual,  emotional 
and  volitional  elements;  and  that  in  every  act,  the 
Divine  Mind  involves  all  of  these  at  the  same  instant 
and  that  the  same  relation  of  dependence  exists  among 
these  elements  as  is  found  to  hold  true  in  every  act  of 
human  mind. 

This  conception  of  an  act  of  the  mind  of  the  Absolute 
and  of  its  peculiar  characteristics  is,  as  previously  stated, 
the  second  of  the  four  root  thoughts. 

Having  considered  the  nature  of  a  thought  of  the 
Divine  Mind,  and  of  the  human  mind,  it  becomes  neces- 
sary, at  this  stage,  in  order  to  exhibit  the  true  function 
of  the  branches  of  study  in  education,  to  consider  objec- 
tive thought. 

God  thought  a  thought.  This  thought,  as  before  indi- 
cated, was  characterized  by : — 

1.  The  presence  of  all  three  elements — intellect, 
sensibility  and  will. 

2.  The  predominance  of  one  of  them. 

3.  The  fact  that  a  relation  of  logical  dependence 
exists  among  them — the  element  of  feeling  depending 
upon  that  of  knowing  and  of  willing  upon  that  of 
feeling. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  433 

4.  The  fact  that  superior  activity  in  either  one  of 
these  elements,  depends  upon  the  superior  activity  and 
force  of  the  others,  i.  e.,  that  each  element  is  the  true  and 
necessary  avenue  to  the  others. 

This  thought  of  the  Divine  Mind  thus  constituted  and 
characterized  was  projected  into  outward  form  and 
became  the  macrocosmos  (the  universe).  The  essence  of 
the  universe  is  therefore  a  thought,  an  organic  unity, 
and  is,  hence,  itself  an  organic  unity. 

The  materials  of  geography,  being  elements  of  the 
the  universe,  partake,  in  their  separation  and  in  their 
aggregation,  of  the  organic  unity  of  the  whole. 

The  microcosmos  (man)  is  a  thought  of  the  Divine 
Mind.  As  a  physical  being,  man  is  the  objective  ex- 
pression of  a  thought  of  God  ;  and  as  a  spiritual  being, 
he  is  the  spiritual  image  of  the  Absolute,  differing, 
in  the  beginning,  only  in  degree. 

As  a  physical  being,  man  constitutes  the  materials  for 
physiology  and  hence  physiology  deals  with  subject- 
matter  which  is  in  essence  organic,  since  it  is  the  ob- 
jective expression  of  a  thought.  As  a  spiritual  being, 
man  constitutes  the  materials  for  psychology,  subject- 
matter  which  is  obviously  organic. 

The  attempt  of  man  to  make  subjective  to  himself, 
the  thought  of  the  Divine,  as  expressed  in  the  universe, 
furnishes  what  may  be  called  the  path  of  history.  This 
path  of  history,  being  a  series  of  thoughts  or  mental 
movements,  obviously  involves  the  organic  relations 
that  pertain  to  any  single  thought.  This  progress  of 
the  finite  mind  toward  the  Infinite  becomes  objective  in 

29 


434  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

the  materials  considered  in  arithmetic,  grammar,  read- 
ing (with  its  attendants,  spelling  and  writing)  and  his- 
tory. The  common  school  studies  are  organic  therefore, 
in  the  sense  that  their  common  element  is  thought,  in  that 
they  have  a  common  substratum,  which  is  spiritual  and 
therefore  organic.  Physiology  and  geography  are  the 
objective  expression  of  the  thought  of  the  Infinite  Mind, 
characterized  by  all  the  organic  relations  before  men- 
tioned. It  is  with  great  difficulty,  however,  that  one  is 
able  to  determine  whether  the  element  of  feeling,  know- 
ing or  willing  is  predominant,  except  when  the  ma- 
terials of  these  subjects  are  considered  in  detail.  For 
example,  if  in  the  study  of  geography,  one  considers  in 
the  plant  life  the  heliotrope  as  an  objective  expression  of 
a  thought  of  God,  the  emotional  or  aesthetic  element  is 
seen  to  be  predominant.  Arithmetic  is  the  objective 
expression  of  the  thinking  or  intellectual  element  in 
man,  as  related  to  the  objective  and  inorganic  world. 
Grammar  is  the  objective  expression  of  the  thinking  or 
intellectual  element  in  man  as  related  to  the  processes 
of  his  own  thinking.  Reading,  with  its  attendants, 
spelling  and  writing,  is  that  into  which  man  has  pro- 
jected his  emotional  or  aesthetic  nature,  while  in  history, 
the  volitional  element  in  man  or  man  as  a  being  of  deeds, 
is  portrayed. 

According  to  the  nature  of  a  thought,  as  before  indi- 
cated, it  is  to  be  understood  that  while  each  of  these 
subjects  is  marked  by  the  predominance  of  one  element, 
all  of  the  elements  are  present  with  the  relation  of  de- 
pendence existing  among  them,  and  that  to  transmute 


THE    THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  435 

them  into  thought,  all  three  elements  must  be  reached 
and  touched. 

This  conception  of  the  material  universe  and  of  man  as 
the  objective  thought  of  the  AbsolutCy  and  of  whatever  man 
has  put  forth  in  concrete  form,  as  the  life  or  spirit  of 
man  himself  to  a  degree,  is  the  third  root  thought. 

The  attempt  of  man  to  harmonize  his  being  with  the 
thought  made  manifest  in  the  macrocosmos  as  evinced 
in  the  development  of  history,  discloses  man  in  a 
three-fold  relation,  i.  e.,  in  relation  to  himself,  in  rela- 
tionjto  others  involving  a  relation  to  self,  in  relation  to 
the  Infinite  involving  a  relation  to  himself  and  to  other 
beings. 

This  conception  of  m^n  ow  moving  in  a  three-fold  relation, 
i.  e.,  as  having  duties  to  sdf,  to  others  and  to  the  Infinite,  con- 
stitutes the  fourth  root  thought. 

Out  of  the  four  root  thoughts  arises  the  true  concep- 
tion of  the  organic  relation  of  the  common  school 
studies.  It  is  obvious  at  once  that  this  relation 
cannot  be  simple.  It  is  complex  and  involves 
three  constituent  thoughts.  The  first  of  these  con- 
stiiueni  thoughts  is  that  there  exists  among  the  studies 
themselves,  and  among  their  constituent  ideas,  and  among 
the  three  elements — those  of  knowing,  feeling  and  will' 
tng—the  relation  of  mutual  dependence. 

For  example,  the  subject  of  history  depends  upon  and 
is  made  clear  to  a  degree,  by  the  subject  of  geography ; 
while  it  in  turn  throws  its  light  back  upon  the  subject 
of  geography.  Division  prepares  for  and  makes 
clear   the  subject  of  ratio,    while    ratio  makes  more 


436  THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

definite  and  plain  the  subject  of  division.  The 
famihar"  idea  of  a  draft  in  a  stove  or  chim- 
ney leads  up  to  a  consideration  of  the  trade 
winds  and  is  itself  made  clear  by  an  explanation 
of  them ;  and  in  studying  DaVinci's  Last  Supper,  the 
element  of  knowing  must  precede  that  of  feeling,  and 
feeling  that  of  willing,  i.  e.,  the  student  of  this  piece  of 
art  must  know  the  general  plan,  the  groupings,  the  idea 
in  each  group,  the  significance  of  the  various  postures 
as  a  condition  for  his  feeling  of  satisfaction  and  high 
appreciation  of  it  as  a  work  of  art,  and  the  reverential 
feeling  which  the  theme,  as  thus  portrayed,  suggests ;  and 
this  knowing  and  feeling  are  the  condition  to  those 
resolves  of  excellence  and  duty  that  the  proper  know- 
ledge and  emotions  would  arouse. 

The  first  constituent  thought — that  there  is  a  relation 
of  mutual  dependence  existing  among  the  subjects  and 
among  the  ideas  of  each  subject, — involves  and  is  based 
upon  two  related  thoughts.  The  first  of  these  is  that 
the  universe  has  its  spiritual  and  its  material  sides;  that 
the  material  side  is  composed  of  the  inorganic  and  the 
organic  world;  arithmetic  being  the  gate-way  to  the  in- 
organic world;  while  geography  and  physiology  form 
avenues  to  the  organic  world ;  that  the  spiritual  side 
consists  of  man  as  a  logical  being  (to  which  phase  gram- 
mar is  the  avenue) — as  a  being  of  emotion,  (reading 
being  the  opening  to  this  phase) — as  a  being  of  deeds, 
(the  mind  entering  into  this  realm  through  the  subject 
of  history.) 

The  second  of  these  related  thoughts  is  that  the  child 


THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  437 

h^ore  ent^ng  school  has  mastered  to  a  degree  and  made  a 
part  of  his  experience,  ideas  pertaining  to  every  phase  of  the 
field  of  knowledge. 

The  first  of  these  related  thoughts  together  with  the 
development  of  the  mind,  determines  that  there  is  a 
general  order  or  sequence  of  studies. 

The  second  makes  it  clear  that,  to  a  degree,  the 
various  subjects  move  forward  simultaneously.  To 
illustrate :  In  giving  a  lesson  in  language  upon 
the  two-cent  coin,  the  child  would  study  the 
relation  of  one  cent  to  two  cents — (number) ;  the 
form  of  the  coiij  (form)  ;  its  size  (size  and  number) ; 
its  color  (color)  ;  the  material  of  which  it  is  made  (geog- 
raphy— minerals);  where  the  material  is  found  (geog- 
raphy— location);  how  it  is  obtained  (geography — 
mining) ;  its  coinage  (government)  ;  its  uses  (business). 

If  the  lesson  were  in  reading — for  example,  *'  The  Loss 
of  the  Birkenhead" — the  pupil  in  studying  it  should 
connect  it  with  the  realm  of  ethics.  He  should  learn  how 
the  German  emperor  had  paraded  his  vast  army  and 
had  caused  to  be  read  to  them,  regiment  by  regiment, 
**The  I^ss  of  the  Birkenhead;"  how  they  had  thus 
learned  the  quiet  firmness  of  the  English  soldiers  during 
that  trying  ordeal,  while  the  women  and  children  were 
being  saved  and  the  vessel  was  slowly  sinking  down 
with  them,  in  parade  order  upon  its  decks,  inch  by  inch 
into  the  cruel  African  sea.  They  should  know  that  the 
German  emperor  thought  this  quiet  faithfulness  unto 
death  to  be  an  example  of  what  noble  men  ought  to  be 
— an  education  for  heroes.  Thus  should  the  reading  work 
and  the  idea  of  duty  react  upon  each  other. 


438  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

But  taken  even  as  a  point  of  knowledge,  how 
admirably  would  the  lesson  pass  out  in  various  lines. 
Let  it  be  studied  when  the  class  are  engaged  in  the 
consideration  of  the  continent  of  Africa.  What  a  lesson 
in  geography  it  could  be  made.  How  vivid  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  translucent  African  sea— the  home  of  the 
shark  and  kindred  wonders  it  would  enable  their  active 
minds  to  comprehend.  How  great  an  interest  it  would 
throw  upon  the  study  of  the  continent  itself — its  struc- 
ture, its  vegetation,  its  beautiful  rivers  and  lakes,  its 
inhabitants  and  their  queer  customs. 

If  "  Time's  Swing,"  were  the  lesson'  in  reading,  the 
whole  selection  should  not  be  studied  at  once,  but  that 
part  relating  to  winter,  in  the  winter  time,  and,  that 
relating  to  spring  in  the  spring  time,  etc.  Reading  and 
outward  nature  should  react  upon  each  other.  The  pupil 
should  note  that  first  "  lilac  bud "  and  put  down  its 
date.  Each  day  he  should  watch  the  new  comers  with 
their  curious  differences,  their  kinds  of  growth,  the  beauty 
of  their  leaves,  their  color  and  structure,  the  upward 
flow  of  the  sap,  until  all  the  glory  of  that  moving  life 
should  be  understood  and  he  would  see  in  every  blade 
of  grass  a  rivulet,  and  in  every  tree  a  river ;  and  it  would 
thus  come  upon  him  that  the  quiet  fields  with  their  grass 
and  trees,  were  yet  the  scene  of  constant  life  and  motion. 
Not  a  bird  should  fly  unnoticed.  He  should  hear  the 
note  of  the  first  robin.  Not  a  song  should  be  sung  and 
not  a  wing  should  be  moved  that  did  not  appeal  to  hear- 
ing ears  and  seeing  eyes  and  to  a  mind  interested  in 
reflecting  concerning  them.     Thus  should  the  realm  of 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  439 

nature  reinforce  and  move  forward  with  the  reading  work 
of  the  school. 

On  the  supposition,  however,  that  the  teacher  thor- 
oughly understands  this  constituent  thought  of  a  mutual 
relation  of  subjects  and  ideas  and  its  two  related  thoughts, 
what  practical  conclusions  come  to  him  that  will  tend 
to  make  him  more  rational  and  organic  in  his  work  ? 

This  thought  of  a  relation  of  mutual  dependence, 
since  it  considers  man  mainly  in  the  lowest  relation — 
to  himself — gives  rise  to  practical  conclusions  relating 
largely  to  details.  The  first  practical  conclusion  is  that 
the  present  common  school  studies  are  those  necessary 
for  the  common  schools,  inasmuch  as  each  is  the  only 
gate-way  to  some  one  division  of  the  field  of  knowledge. 
Satisfactory  preparatory  education  admits  of  no  less, 
nor  of  other  studies,  and  requires  no  more.  It'will  be 
seen,  in  the  second  place,  that  a  thorough  understanding, 
of  this  constituent  idea,  with  its  underlying  principle, 
would  modify  many  details  of  school  work : 

It  would  transfer  work  witli  diacritical  marks  from 
the  first  year  to  the  second  or  third  year. 

It  would  establish  the  validity  of  a  brief  period  of 
printing  in  the  beginning  of  reading  work. 

It  would  justify  the  teaching  together  of  the  four  pro- 
cesses in  number  during  the  first  two  years  ;  the  pre- 
sentation of  long  division  before  short;  the  considera- 
tion of  any  number  in  relation  to  whole  numbers,  to 
the  fraction  to  which  it  gives  rise,  and  to  the  units  of 
the  various  tables,  before  taking  up  tlie  next  liigher 
number. 


440  THE   THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

It  would  prevent  the  teaching  of  Arabic  or  Roman 
symbols,  or  of  counting,  higher  than  the  actual  numbers 
taught. 

It  would  at  least  call  into  serious  question  that  kind 
of  language  work  which  furnishes  the  pupils  with  a 
miscellaneous  list  of  subject  and  predicate  words  and 
requires  them  to  mechanically  unite  these  into  state- 
ments, questions,  exclamations,  etc. 

It  would  also  raise  the  question  whether  that  method 
of  geography  work  is  best  which  begins  with  the  study 
and  mapping  of  the  school-room  and  proceeds  in  like 
manner  to  the  school  yard,  township,  county,  state, 
group  of  states,  etc. 

Indicate  the  ground  for  each  of  these  conclusions. 

The  second  constituent  thought  of  the  complex  idea  of 
the  organic  relation  of  these  studies  is  that  the  common 
school  subjects  are  designed  to  constitute  a  mental  gymna- 
sium for  mind  exercise. 

This  involves  the  idea  that  education  is  a  course  of 
training.  As  the  youth  in  a  gymnasium  practices  upon 
the  horizontal  bar  in  order  to  develop  his  muscular 
powers  generally,  without  intending  to  go  on  posturing 
upon  horizontal  bars  all  through  life,  so  the  pupil  in  tlie 
school  exercises  his  mind  upon  the  subjects  there  pre- 
sented in  order  to  develop  all  of  his  powers  harmoni- 
ously without  regarding  as  a  supreme  end  either  the 
acquisition  of  the  facts  and  organized  knowledge  which 
he  necessarily  obtains,  or  any  particular  vocation  that 
he  may  be  thinking  of  entering  upon. 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  441 

Jevons  says,  "School  is  a  place  where  the  mental, 
fibers  are  to  be  exercised,  trained,  expanded,  developed 
and  strengthened.  It  is  the  very  purpose  of  a  liberal 
education,  as  it  is  correctly  called,  to  develop  and  train 
the  plastic  fibers  of  the  youthful  brain  in  that  general 
and  harmonious  way  that  will  effectually  prevent  them 
from  taking  too  early  a  definite  set  which  will  after- 
ward narrow  and  restrict  the  range  of  judgement  and 
acquisition.  I  will  even  go  so  far  as  to  say  that  it  is  hardly  c?e- 
sirahle  for  the  actual  things  taught  at  school  to  stay  in  the 
mind  for  life.  The  source  of  error  is  the  failure  to  dis- 
tinguish between  the  form  and  the  matter  of  know- 
ledge ;  between  the  facts  themselves  and  the  manner  in 
which  the  mental  powers  deal  with  the  facts. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  education  so  to  exercise  the  fac- 
ulties of  the  mind  that  the  infinitely  various  experi- 
ences of  after-life  may  be  observed  and  reasoned  upon 
to  the  best  effect." 

This  constituent  thought,  that  the  common  school 
branches  constitute  a  mental  gymnasium  for  mind  exer- 
cise, involves  and  is  based  upon  several  related  thoughts 
among  which  may  be  stated  the  following : 

The  highest  development  of  man  is  to  be  attained 
through  communion  with  his  fellow  men  in  organized 
society. 

But  the  root  idea  of  organized  society  is  exchange — on 
the  one  hand  spiritual  exchange^  an  interchange  of  ideas, 
on  the  other,  material  exchange^  that  of  food,  clothing  and 
shelter.  In  considering  the  common  school  branches  in 
relation  to  these  exchanges,  it  is  seen  that  arithmetic  is 


442  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

the  key  to  material  exchange,  reading  and  writing  to  the 
spiritual.  Geography  opens  to  the  view  the  sources  to 
the  material  exchange.  Grammar  is  the  medium  by 
which  are  first  disclosed  the  workings  of  mind — the 
origin  of  the  ideas  to  be  exchanged. 

History  shows  the  working  of  the  past  as  seen  in  the 
present,  either  of  the  individual  or  of  the  nation. 

A  second  related  thought  is  that  the  American  indi- 
vidual possesses  the  unrestricted  right  to  change  his  status 
or  vocation  in  organized  society. 

This  is  not  the  case  in  India.  The  pariah's  status  is 
fixed.  He  is  predestined,  even  before  birth,  to  menial 
vocations.  A  web  of  fate  extends  over  all  members  of 
society  in  that  region  from  which  they  cannot  extricate 
themselves  if  they  would.  To  such  individuals  the 
common  school  branches  could  have  no  organic  relation 
in  the  sense  here  indicated.  This  inability  to  change  is 
less  manifest  in  Europe,  but  it  exists  there  to  a  certain 
degree.  The  tendency  in  Europe  is  still  to  educate  the 
child  to  move  in  the  class  in  which  birth  places  him ; 
but  in  America,  absolute  freedom  of  change  in  vocation 
is  not  only  accorded  but  encouraged.  All  the  environ- 
ment of  a  child  urges  him  to  exhibit  all  the  power  that 
there  is  in  him  and  to  receive  the  appropriate  reward. 
To  such  a  child  alone  can  there  be  this  true  organic 
relation  of  the  studies,  and  this  power  of  his  to  transfer 
his  status  makes  it  evident  that  the  common  aim  of  the 
branches  must  be  to  furnish  his  mind  an  exercise  ground — 
to  give  him  a  key  by  which  he  may  unlock  and  discover  his 
capacities,  and  thereby  determine  for  himself  the  voca- 
tion that  he  is  called  upon  to  fill. 


THE    THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  443 

The  third  related  thought  is  thai  the  basis  of  true  success 
in  any  vocation,  in  organized  society ^  is  character  or  manhood. 
Rousseau  says,  "In  the  natural  order  of  things,  all  men  be- 
ing equal,  the  vocation  that  is  common  to  all  is  the  state 
of  manhood,  and  whoever  is  well  trained  in  that  cannot 
fulfill  badly  any  vocation  that  depends  upon  it.  Whether 
the  pupil  who  leaves  my  hands  is  destined  for  the  church, 
the  bar  or  the  army,  matters  little.  Before  a  child  chooses 
the  vocation  of  his  parents,  nature  calls  upon  him  first  to 
be  a  man.  How  to  live  is  what  I  want  to  teach  him.  He 
may  not  be  when  he  leaves  my  charge  a  magistrate,  a 
soldier  or  a  priest ;  but  all  that  a  man  can  do,  he  can  do 
as  well  as  any  one  and  fortune  will  in  vain  alter  his 
position,  for  he  will  always  maintain  his  own." 

The  fourth  idea  which  is  involved  in  this  constituent 
thought  is  that  any  design  which  is  common  to  these  sub- 
jects must  be  attainable  by  every  child  in  the  school;  and  the 
fifth  that  great  knowledge  is  not  attainable  by  every  child,  but 
mental  development  and  skill  are.  The  practical  conclu- 
sions to  be  drawn  from  this  constituent  idea  and  its 
related  thoughts,  are : 

1.  That  it  is  a  question  whether  or  not  the  usual 
method  of  presenting  geography  is  the  best  for  the 
pupil. 

2.  That  the  most  practical  education  a  child  can 
receive  is  that  which  trains  him  to  think  accurately  in 
any  set  of  circumstances  into  which  he  may  be  thrown. 

3.  That  the  cardinal  question  for  the  teacher  is  not 
"  How  can  I  lead  the  pupil  to  most  clearly  comprehend 
this  subject,  e.  g.,  grammar?"  but  "How can  I  employ 


444  THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

this  subject  so  as  to  give  the  highest  degree  of  mental 
training  which  it  is  fitted  to  give?  "  Not  "  How  can  I 
lead  the  pupil  to  most  readily  understand  this  thought, 
6.  g.,  dividing  the  divisor  multiplies  the  quotient?"  but 
"  How  can  I  employ  this  thought  so  as  to  give  the  mind 
of  the  pupil  all  the  training  which  the  thought  is  fitted 
to  give  ?"  Not  "  How  can  I  most  clearly  present  this 
idea,  e.  g.,  the  trade-winds?"  but  "How  can  I  employ 
this  idea  so  as  to  develop "  the  mental  faculties  of  the 
pupil  to  the  highest  degree  to  which  the  nature  of  the 
idea  will  admit?" 

4.  That  in  a  business  sense,  the  studies  that  are 
most  absolutely  necessary  are  reading,  writing  and 
arithmetic. 

The  third  constituent  idea  is  that  the  subjects  constitute 
a  medium  by  which  untrained  and  immature  mind  is 
enabled  to  touch  and  coalesce  with  trained  and  mature 
human  minds,  and  with  the  Infinite  Mind. 

This  idea  is  the  outgrowth  of  two  under-lying 
thoughts : 

1.  That  the  universe  is  the  objective  expression  of 
God's  thought. 

2.  That  any  work  put  forth  by  man  is  the  expression, 
to  a  degree,  of  man's  life  and  thought. 

The  thought  that  the  universe  is  the  reason  of  God 
made  objective,  is  not  a  novel  one.  The  great  astrono- 
mer long  ago  said  "  I  read  thy  thoughts,  0  God,"  and 
ages  before  that  even,  the  same  thought  had  been  ex- 
pressed when  it  was  said  "The  heavens  declare  the 
glory  of  God  and  the   firmament  showeth  His  handi- 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE  SCHOOL.  445 

work.  Day  unto  day  uttereth  speech  and  night  unto 
night  showeth  knowledge."  That  whatever  a  man  does 
is  really  his  life  to  a  degree,  ought  to  be  equally  clear. 
A  thought  arose  in  the  mind  of  a  poet.  He  pruned, 
elaborated  and  refined  it.  While  still  subjective  this 
thought  is  evidently  his  life,  his  spirit  to  a  degree. 
When  he  causes  it  to  take  shape  in  language  and  calls 
it  the  "  Sensitive  Plant,"  what  is  it  other  than  a  part  of 
his  life  and  thought  made  objective? 

The  practical  conclusions  from  this  constituent 
thought  and  its  involved  ideas  are : 

1.  That  education  deals  with  life   and    not  with 
lessom  or  books^  except  as  instruments. 

2.  That  the  true  process  of  education  is  the  passing 
of  life  through  life  into  life  and  the  fusing  with  it. 

That  education  is  really  a  communion  of  spirit  with 
spirit,  a  blending  of  thought  with  thought,  is  but  little 
regarded  in  education.  The  Ancients,  however,  had  a 
true  conception  of  this  passage  of  life,  in  that  they 
represented  it  as  a  fountain  ever  flowing,  from  which, 
thinker,  historian  and  poet  might  drink  and  thus  im- 
bibe inspiration  for  their  lofty  themes;  and  its  truth 
may  easily  be  made  clear  to  even  the  practical  modern 
man. 

A  philosopher  of  old  conceived  a  beautiful  thought. 
He  clothed  this  in  a  paragraph,  and  between  the  lids  of 
a  book  it  rested  for  ages  until  it  came  in  contact  with 
the  mind  of  a  thinker,  and  at  his  touch  it  awoke  and 
arose  from  the  folio  sepulchre  in  which  it  had  so  long 
been  entombed  and  entered  into  his  thought  and  mind 


446  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

and  lived  again,  and  awakened  to  him  the  genius  and 
spirit  of  its  originator  and  thus,  to  a  degree  elevated  him 
to  his  species. 

The  same  idea  of  the  passing  of  life  is  given  in  the 
expression, 

"  A  nameless  man,  amid  the  crowd  that  thronged  the  daily  mart, 
Let  fall  a  word  of  hope  and  love  unstudied  from  the  heart, 
A  whisper  on  the  tumult  thrown,  a  transitory  breath. 
It  raised  a  brother  from  the  dust,  it  saved  a  soul  from  death." 

It  is  here  obviously  the  intention  to  convey  the  idea 
that  the  word  is  an  embodiment  of  life  as  it  is  repre- 
sented as  life-giving. 

3.  That  these  mind-creations  are  subject  to  the  same 
conditions  as  the  minds  of  which  they  are  the  out- 
growth. 

4.  That  in  the  view  of  a  training  for  higher  life,  the 
subjects  that  are  most  absolutely  essential  are  reading, 
geography,  and  history,  in  that  they  embody,  more 
largely  than  any  others,  the  elements  of  higher  life. 

What  is  meant  by  higher  life  ?  Show  in  what  respect  these 
branches  of  study  embody  its  elements  more  largely  than  the 
others. 

KINDS  OF  EXERCISE-GROUNDS. 

1.  The  idea  or  notion. 

r  External  object. 

a.  Individual.  <  An  action  or  event  changing  from 

(^     one  phase  to  another. 

b.  General. 

2.  The  thought  or  judgment. 

a.  Individual. 

b.  General. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  447 

METHODS  APPROPRIATE. 

1.  The  method  appropriate  to  the  treatment  of  the 
general  idea  or  notion  is  Definition,  mainly  by : — 

a.  Example. 

b.  Analysis. 

c.  Antithesis. 

2.  The  method  appropriate  to  the  treatment  of  the 
external  object  is  Description,  mainly  by : — 

a.  A  general  plan. 

6.  A  succession  of  views. 

c.  The  condition  at  a  particular  time. 

3.  The  method   appropriate  to  the    treatment  of 
changing  events  is  Narration,  mainly  by  presenting: — 

a.  The  result  of  the  series  of  events. 
6.  The  events  in  their  sequence. 
c.  A  summary. 

4.  The  method  appropriate  to  the  treatment  of  the 
judgment  is  Exposition,  mainly  by  : — 

a.  Example. 

b.  Illustration. 

c.  Iteration. 

d.  Obverse  iteration. 

e.  Pointing  out  the  difficulty. 

These  methods  are  appropriate  because  the  mind,  in  origin- 
ally acquiring  the  ideas  or  judgments,  naturally  pursues  the 
methods  given. 

In  preparing  to  present  a  lesson  from  a  text-book,  the  teacher 
should  decide — 

a.  The  nature  of  the  subject. 

b.  The  method  by  which  the  author  has  treated  it. 

c.  Whether  the  method  of  the  author  needs  explanation. 


448  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

d.  By  what  other  methods  appropriate  to  the  subject,  the 
author's  method  may  be  supplemented. 

THE  TEACHER. 

While  the  child  is  the  real  educator  of  himself,  the 
teacher  as  a  formal  educator,  is  the  predominant  instru- 
ment of  the  school.  The  influence  due  to  the  teacher 
is  of  two  kinds : 

1.  Unconscious  influence. 

2.  Conscious  influence. 

UNCONSCIOUS  INFLUENCE. 

1.  What  it  is. 

a.  The  idea  of  unconscious  education,  assumes 
what  as  the  aim  of  education  ? 

b.  The  principles  of  unconscious  education  ? 

c.  The  avenues  through  which    unconscious  in- 
fluence reaches  the  child. 

2.  The  relation  of  the  teacher's  previous  discipline 
to  his  unconscious  influence. 

3.  Why  the  unconscious  influence  of  the  teacher  is 
the  most  potent  factor  in  unfolding  the  true  spiritual 
being  of  the  child. 

Elaborate  each  of  the  points  suggested. 

CONSCIOUS  INFLUENCE. 

The  teacher  is  consciously  an  educative  force : — 

1.  Through  his  general  work  in  the  school. 

2.  Through  the  work  of  the  recitation. 

The  prime  consideration  in  the  recitation  is  that  the 
pupil  shall  he  in  a  state  of  genuinely  interested  atten- 
tion in  the  w oil-:,  and  in  sympathetic  harmony  with  the 


THE  THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  449 

teacher,  with  the  other  pupils,  and  with  the  exercise- 
ground. 

The  principles  underlying  this  thought  ? 

In  order  that  this  state  may  be  permanent,  there 
must  be  in  the  teacher's  character  the  residuum  of  a 
generous  previous  general  and  specific  preparation. 
This  will  manifest  itself  in  the  recitation  in  the  eflBicient 
employment  of  the  true  agencies  of  the  recitation, 
viz: — 

a.  Suggestion. 

b.  Stimuli. 

c.  Questioning. 

d.  Explanation. 

e.  Repetition.  (Iteration,  review.) 

THE   PREVIOUS   PREPARATION. 

As  among  the  features  of  the  teacher's  previous 
preparation  may  be  suggested : 

1.  Accurate  and  ample  preparation  for  the  work  by 
the  teacher,  through  a  careful  study  of  the  subject  in  text- 
books, and  of  the  active^  practiced  world,  in  which  the 
children  and  himself  move. 

2.  A  knowledge  of  the  sulked  of  education,  together 
with  its  inferences.     (Page  19.) 

3.  A  knowledge  of  the  aim  of  education.     (Page  52.) 

4.  A  knowledge  of  the  principle  and  the  condition  of 
education.     (Page  81.) 

6.  A  knowledge  of  what  is  meant  by  the  exercise- 
ground  in  education.     (Page  90.) 

6.  A  knowledge  of  ike  school  in  relation  to  other  insti- 
tutions.   (Page  96—131.) 


450  THE  THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

7.  A  knowledge  of  the  trend  of  educational  thought 
and  method,  as  seen  in  the  Greek,  Roman,  and  Jesuit  edu- 
cation, and  in  the  works  of: 

Ascham,  (1515).  Kant,  (1724). 

Montaigne,  (1533).  Pestalozzi,  (1746). 

Ratich,  (1571).  Fichte,  (1762). 

Comenius,  (1592).  Richter,  (1763). 

Milton,  (1608).  Jacotot,  (1770). 

Locke,  (1632).  Herbart,  (1776). 

Rousseau,  (1712).  Froebel,  (1782). 

Basedow,  (1723).  Sturm,  (1803). 
Spencer,  (1820). 

The  teacher  should  understand  the  fundamental  ideas  of 
these  so  that : 

a.  His  mind  may  be  led  in  the  right  direction. 

b.  He  may  dwell  upon  essentials  in  his  work. 

c.  He  may  avoid  errors,  long  known  to  he  such. 

8.  Matured  habits  of  regularity,  punctuality,  silence, 
politeness  and  kindness. 

9.  Power  of  rich  illustration. 

10.  Skill  in  blackboard  drawing. 

11.  Ability  to  write  well  on  paper  and  on  blackbord. 

12.  Power  of  vivid  narration  and  description. 

13.  Power  to  question  with  accurracy  and  judgment. 

14.  Interest  in  the  children  and  in  the  work. 

15.  Knowledge  of  the  methods  appropriate.  (In- 
volving a  knowledge  of  and  sympathy  with  the  pupils' 
minds.) 

Scholarship,  if  combined  with  natural  aptitude  in 
imparting,  can  accomplish  much  in  teaching;  these, 
,and  a  knowledge  of  the  general  or  fundamental  princi- 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  451 

pies  of  teaching,  more ;  the  foregoing,  combined  with  a 
thorough  mastery  of  the  specific  method  of  each  subject, 
and  practical  experience  in  applying  it,  most. 

The  comprehension  of  the  specific  method  of  any  sub- 
ject must  be  thorough  enough  to  reach  its  rational  basis, 
i.  e.,  it  must  be  seen  to  rest  upon  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
ject and  upon  the  nature  of  the  pupil's  mind  in  the 
various  stages.  The  first  is,  and  has  long  been,  gener^ 
ally  admitted;  the  second  is  beginning  to  be.  The  teacher, 
through  any  specific  method,  is  assumed  to  be  cultivat- 
ing the  mind.  But  this  cannot  be  done  unless  the 
teacher  has  an  insight  into  mind  action,  and  knows  that 
the  method  is  based  upon  the  laws  of  such  action.  Unless 
such  is  the  case,  education  might  recognize  certain  facul- 
ties in  operation,  but  others,  which  ought  to  be  active 
but  are  dormant,  it  would  not  notice;  it  would  meet 
with  obstacles  to  progress  which  it  could  not  remove; 
errors  of  conduct  to  which  it  could  apply  no  remedy ; 
it  would  give  preference  to  those  motives  which  we  most 
easily  obey,  rather  than  to  the  highest. 

Its  method,  not  founded  on  principles,  would  be  a 
thing  of  accident;  at  best  a  combination  of  expedients 
with  no  consciousness  of  one  purpose;  if  right  at  any 
time«  right  only  by  chance ;  most  probably  a  confusion 
of  methods,  undoing  at  one  time  what  has  been  done 
at  another ;  feeble  and  irregular,  wanting  both  the  power 
to  mold  and  the  beauty  to  attra^.t.  Mere  empirical 
teaching,  it  is  true,  may  not  be  altogether  unproductive 
of  valuable  results ;  by  closely  following  prescribed  laws, 
much  good  may  be  done.  But  much  more  can  be  done 
if  the  ground   and  spirit  of   these  laws  are  compre- 


452  THE  THEORY  OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

hended;  while  many  cases  must  arise  which  the  pre- 
scription does  not  provide  for.  Moreover,  it  will  doubt- 
less be  conceded  that  it  is  better  to  be  a  conscious  than 
an  unconscious  agent ;  to  be  rationally  adapting  means 

to  end. 

Notwithstanding  a  method  may  be  rational  it  should 

not  be  applied  rigidly  and  unvaryingly  in  every  school 
and  under  all  circumstances  by  any  teacher,  nor  should 
its  interpretation  and  application  be  precisely  the  same 
in  the  same  school  and  under  the  same  circumstances 
by  different  teachers;  i.  e.,  since  a  method  is  a  mode  by 
which  one  mind  addresses  other  minds,  it  should  be  so 
individualized  by  the  teacher  as  to  be  adapted  to  the 
natural  and  acquired  aptitudes  of  both  the  mind  ad- 
dressing and  the  minds  addressed. 

This  is  merely  to  present  the  evident  truth  that  the 
intelligent  teacher  is  of  more  importance  than  his 
method ;  that  his  sympathy  with  the  minds  to  be  ad- 
dressed, his  force  of  personal  character,  and  the  degree 
of  interest  and  intelligence  with  which  he  is  able  to 
invest  a  method,  must  always  transcend  its  mere 
technical  propriety. 

Each  individual  teacher  should  adopt  that  method 
best  suited  to  his  natural  aptitudes,  and  in  which  he 
has  the  strongest  rational  faith,  relying  upon  the 
thought  that  a  sympathetic,  earnest  and  judicious  man- 
ner of  dealing  with  the  pupils  will  secure  success, 
whether  the  given  method  is  strictly  rational  or  not ; 
since  it  is  moral  considerations,  which  determine  the 
progress  of  the  pupils,  rather  than  the  intellectual  pro- 
priety of  the  method  employed. 


THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 


In  this  thought  lies  the  explanation  of  the  success 
that  has  attended  the  use  of  the  alphabetic,  phonic,  and 
various  other  methods  which  are  not  in  all  respects  in 
thorough  accord  with  the  principles  of  mental  activity. 
The  teachers  who  introduced  them,  and  many  who 
afterward  employed  them  with  success,  believed  in  them 
and  applied  them  with  devotion. 

It  may  be  reasonably  held,  however,  that  the  success 
in  such  cases  was  not  at  all  commensurate  with  what  it 
would  have  been  had  these  teachers  thoroughly  compre- 
hended the  nature,  in  general  and  in  detail,  of  a  specific 
method  for  the  given  subject  that  was  more  rational  and 
harmonious,  and  then  had  invested  it,  in  its  a^pplica- 
tion,  with  their  personality  and  devotion. 

16.  Power  to  organize,  in  the  form  of  a  written  plan 
the  material  and  method  of  a  lesson. 

There  are  many  teachers,  who  are  highly  efficient,  and 
who  believe  in  the  efficacy  of  written  plans,  and  yet  who 
do  not,  as  a  rule,  prepare  written  plans  for  their  lessons. 
This  is  because  they  have  served  their  apprenticeship  in 
written  plans,  and  by  their  work  with  them  their  minds 
have  acquired  the  habit  of  spontaneously  organizing  the 
material  and  method  of  a  lesson  into  a  logical  mental 
plan.  This  is  the  real  aim  of  written  plans.  They  are 
not  to  be  thought  of  as  a  direct  and  immediate  means 
of  conducting  a  recitation  According  to  directions  set 
down  in  them ;  but  as  a  means  of  forming  the  mental 
habit  of  systematically  organizing  the  matter  and  method 
of  a  lesson.  They,  therefore,  belong  to  the  period  of  the 
teacher's  preparation.    Written  plans  should  be  resorted 


454  THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

to,  however,  as  often  as  practicable,  in  the  every-day 
work,  in  order  to  reinforce  the  mental  habit  referred  to, 
and  not  for  the  purpose  of  using  them  as  guides  in  the 
actual  recitation.  The  class  of  teachers  referred  to  under- 
stand this  and  employ  the  written  plan  in  its  proper 
place,  and  to  fulfill  its  true  function. 

There  are  some  teachers,  however,  who  dismiss  sum- 
marily the  idea  of  written  plans.  These  are  usually  of 
two  classes : 

a.  Those  teachers  who  are  too  indolent  to  prepare 
adequately  for  their  work,  considering  that  their  respon- 
sibility commences  at  the  moment  that  school  begins  in 
the  morning,  and  ends  the  moment  that  school  closes  in 
the  evening. 

b.  Those  superintendents  and  teachers  who  hold 
that  the  teaclier  should  inform  herself  well  upon  the 
subject,  and  without  any  planning,  go  before  the  class, 
and  "  trust  to  the  inspiration  of  the  moment."  The 
claim  of  these  is  that  to  prepare  written  plans  for  les- 
sons makes  the  teaching  mechanical.  Such  a  criticism 
indicates  a  mistaken  view  of  the  true  function  of  written 
plans  or  "  notes  on  lessons." 

A  farmer  once  told  his  sons,  when  he  was  about  to 
pass  from  the  scenes  of  earth,  that,  concealed  beneath 
the  soil  in  the  farm  that  he  was  about  to  leave  them,  was 
a  great  treasure.  After  their  father  had  passed  away,  the 
sons  carefully  and  patiently  spaded  up  every  foot  of  the 
ground,  but  found  no  treasure.  Their  next  crops,  how- 
ever, were  found  to  be  more  valuable  a  hundred-fold. 
The  treasure  their  father  meant  was  the  effect  of  their 
careful,  thorough  work. 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL.  465 

So  it  is  with  the  written  plan.  The  value  of  the  plan 
is  in  the  planning.  The  purpose  of  the  written  plan  is 
accomplished  before  the  recitation  begins.  To  employ 
it  as  a  guide,  and  consult  it  during  the  progress  of  the 
recitation,  would  be  a  violation  of  the  spirit  of  teaching 
as  a  psychological  art.  The  attention  of  the  teacher, 
during  the  recitation,  must  be  concentrated  upon  the 
minds  of  the  pupils,  in  order  that  she  may  read  their 
true  condition  at  each  step,  and  change  and  adapt  her 
work  as  their  difficulties  change.  To  attempt  at  the 
same  time  to  consult  at  each  step  the  suggestions  of  a 
written  plan,  is  to  disregard  the  principle  that  the  mind 
has  but  a  given  quantum  of  energy ;  and  it  is  also  to 
deprive  the  lesson  of  spirit  and  interest  by  thrusting 
between  the  mind  addressing  and  the  minds  addressed, 
a  barrier,  thereby  making  the  communion  of  their 
minds  even  more  mediate  than  it  must  of  necessity  be. 

The  true  course  for  the  teacher  is  not  merely  to  inform 
herself  upon  the  subject,  and  then  go  before  the  class 
"  trusting  to  the  inspiration  of  the  moment."  There 
is  no  inspiration  in  the  moment,  under  such  circum- 
stances. The  course  for  the  teacher,  as  demanded  by 
the  interest  and  the  interests  of  the  children,  is : 

1.  To  gather  carefully  the  material  for  the  lesson. 

2.  To  reflect  carefully  upon  its  arrangement,  the 
order  and  method  of  presenting  the  ideas,  and  to  deter- 
mine, in  the  main,  the  illustrations,  etc.,  thus  obtaining 
a  mental  plan. 

3.  To  reduce  this  mental  plan  to  a  written  plan, 
("  Writing  makes  the  exact  man  ")  in  order  to  test  more 


456  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

carefully  the  mental  plan,  and  to  insure  a  better  organi- 
zation of  the  lesson. 

4.  To  go  before  the  class  and  conduct  the  recitation 
without  the  aid  of  the  written  plan,  or  if  using  it  at  all, 
obtaining  only  the  main  headings,  thus  insuring  that 
true  inspiration  and  confidence,  and  that  thorough  or- 
ganization that  come  from  careful  preparation ;  and  at 
the  same  time  allowing  that  freedom  which  enables  the 
teacher  to  adapt  the  work  to  the  changing  needs  of  the 
class. 

But  the  reply  is  that  the  city  teacher  with  eight  or 
ten  daily  recitations,  and  the  country  teacher  with  from 
ten  to  twenty-five  can  not  take  the  time  for  such  pre- 
paration. Admitting  that  to  be  true,  it  may  still  be 
said  that  such  should  be  the  preparation  for  at  least  one 
recitation  daily,  (the  most  difficult  one)  and  its  benefi- 
cial effects  will  be  felt  in  all  recitations. 

On  the  supposition  that  the  horse  is  the  animal 
selected  for  an  oral  lesson,  the  organization  of  the  lesson 
could  be  presented  in  a  written  plan  somewhat  as  fol- 
lows: 

Plan. 

I.  Subject. — The  individual  minds  of  the  pupils. 

II.  Design.— I.  To  give  the  mind  strength  and  skill  by  train- 
ing it  to  observe  common  animals  and  to  reflect  upon  what  it 
observes.  2.  To  give  (incidentally)  certain  knowledge  of  the 
horse. 

III.  Condition  of  training. — Self-activity  of  the  pupil. 

IV.  Exercise-ground. — The  idea  ^horse.^ 

V.  The  Basis. — (The  basis  consists  of  the  ideap  already 
possessed  by  the  child,  that  are  related  to  the  subject  and 
employed  by  the  teacher.) — Knowledge  of  various  four-footed 


THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  457 

animals ;  ability  to  count  to  four ;  experience  as  to  some  of  the 
uses,  food,  and  homes  of  horses ;  knowledge  as  to  glue  and  as 
to  a  certain  kind  of  furniture. 

VI.    Steps.— {A  step  is  the  advance  of  the  mind,  from  an  idea 
possessed  to  the  one  to  be  gained.) 

1.  Advance  of  the  mind  to  the  thought — The  horse  is  a 
quadruped. 

a.  Method. — Refer  to  their  experience  as  to  number  of 
feet ;  present  pictures ;  have  the  feet  counted ;  have  the  thought 
that  it  is  a  four-footed  animal  expressed ;  state  that  there  is 
another  word  that  may  be  used  instead  of  "  four-footed,"  writ- 
ing upon  the  board  the  word  quadruped;  have  other  quadrupeds 
named ;  write  the  sentence,  and  have  the  children  repeat  it  and 
write  it. 

2.  Advance  of  the  mind  to  correct  ideas  as  to  the  use,  food, 
and  home  of  the  horse. 

a.  Method.— 'Refer  to  the  children's  experience  in  regard 
to  these  points ;  obtain  from  them  what  it  eats,  what  it  does  for 
man,  and  where  it  lives  in  winter  and  in  summer ;  supplement 
that  which  is  thus  obtained;  organize  the  information  as  it  is 
received ;  have  the  children  help  form  the  sentence ;  write  it 
upon  the  board  ;  have  the  children  read  it  and  then  write  it.    > 

3.  Advance  of  the  mind  to  ideas  as  to  the  use  of  the  horse 
after  its  death. 

a.  ifrtAod.— Obtain  from  the  children  the  various  mate- 
rials used  in  furniture,  and  in  this  way  indicate  the  use  of  horse- 
hair ;  lead  them  to  talk  of  glue  and  its  uses ;  lead  them  to  see 
that  it  may  be  made  from  the  hoofs  and  some  parts  of  the  fleeh; 
add  the  word  tineioB  to  their  vocabularies ;  lead  them  to  point 
out  sinews  in  their  own  bodies;  organize  the  information  as  it 
is  given  ;  with  the  help  of  the  children  form  the  sentences 
required,  and  then  write  them  on  the  board  ;  have  the  sentences 
read  and  written  by  the  children  as  before ;  have  all  the  sen- 
tences of  the  lesson  read ;  by  questioning,  lead  the  pupils  to 
express  themselves  freely  upon  all  the  points,  noting  carefully 
their  language. 


458  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

Many  other  ideas  concerning  the  horse  could  be  pre- 
sented ;  the  aim  has  been,  however,  not  to  give  a  full 
treatment,  but  merely  to  suggest  the  nature  of  a  written 
plan  that  the  teacher  may  prepare  in  giving  oral  lessons 
on  animals. 

AGENCIES  IN  THE  RECITATION. 
STIMULI. 

Under  stimuli  three  questions  present  themselves. 

1.  What  is  the  nature  of  interest  and  attention? 

2.  What  qualities  and  methods  tend  to  produce  at- 
tention during  the  recitation;  to  give  permanent  interest 
to  the  subjects ;  and  to  impel  the  pupil  to  mental 
growth  ? 

3.  Of  these  qualities  and  methods,  what  ones  are 
capable  of  being  acquired? 

Interest  and  Attention. 

Interest  is  derived  from  inter  meaning  between,  and 
est,  from  esse,  meaning  to  he.  Literally,  therefore,  interest 
means  it  is  between.  This  indicates  that  there  are  two 
things,  between  which  is  a  third  thing.  On  one  hand 
is  the  untrained  mind  with  its  natural  disinclination  to 
continuous  effort  in  a  given  direction,  and  on  the  other 
hand,  a  certain  subject  or  lesson  requiring  close  effort  to 
master  it.  To  master  the  point  of  knowledge  requires 
attention.  But  attention  by  its  literal  meaning  signifies 
effort.  It  means  a  stretching  to — the  very  thing  that  the 
untrained  mind  is  averse  to.  Whatever  stands  between 
this  tendency  of  the  mind  to  avoid  continuous  effort 
and  the  knowledge,  the  mastery  of  which  requires  effort, 
and  thereby  attaches  the  mind  to  its  work,  is  interest. 


THE    THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  459 

Attention  is  the  concentration  of  the  mental  faculties 
upon  a  given  subject.  It  is,  therefore,  an  act  of  will, 
and  is  based  upon  motive.  The  motive  is  interest  of 
some  kind.  Every  lesson  requires  efifort.  It  is  essen- 
tial, therefore,  especially  in  primary  work,  that  the  lea- 
son  be  interesting. 

Interest  is  the  basis  of  attention.  *  Attention  in  the 
child  is  feeble,  and  capable  of  but  limited  continuance. 
It  grows  stronger  by  exercise,  and  interest  is  the  great 
promoter  of  its  exercise,  and  thereby  of  permanency  in 
the  knowledge  gfiined,  or  the  power  of  memory.' 

An  act  of  knowing  "  may  be  performed  with  greater 
or  less  energy.  This  greater  or  less  energy  in  the  opera- 
tion of  knowing  is  called  attention^  which  word,  as  its 
etymology  suggests,  is  another  term  for  tension  or  effort, 
and  was  doubtless  first  transferred  to  the  spiritual  opera- 
tion from  the  strained  condition  of  the  part  or  whole  of 
the  bodily  organism,  which  accompanies  or  follows  such 
efifort."  Attention  is  the  concentration  of  the  powers  of 
the  mind  upon  a  given  instrument  of  training,  at  a  given 
time.  It  is  involved  in  all  good  teaching,  but  not  as  a 
condition^  except  to  a  limited  degree.  It  is  the  resiUt  of 
good  teaching.  As  has  been  said  in  another  connection, 
the  child  is  by  nature  inattentive,  if  by  attention  is 
meant  continuous  efifort.  Attention  is  a  habit  to  be 
acquired.  Being  a  habit,  it  is  subject  to  the  law  that 
the  mind  tends  to  act  again  as  it  has  acted.  One  act  of 
attention  makes  the  next  one  easier,  and  the  next  still 
easier  until  at  last  attention  becomes  second  nature,  i.  e., 
habitual. 


460  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

Likewise,  one  act  of  inattention  makes  a  second  more 
easy,  etc.  Attention,  then,  is  a  habit,  a  mental  growth. 
It  requires  in  its  development,  effort,  and  is  consequently, 
based  upon  motive.  Attention  is  an  act  of  will.  The 
will  may  be  trained  and  controlled.  Everyone,  there- 
fore, has  the  power,  to  so  develop  mentally  that  he  may 
attend  at  will.     It  is  a  question,  then,  of  desire  or  motive. 

To  give  close  attention  for  any  considerable  period  of 
time  is  very  difficult.  The  experience  of  every  one  will 
testify  to  this.  Even  the  person  whose  powers  are  sub- 
stantially mature,  finds  it  difficult  to  give  fixed  attention; 
and  for  children  to  give  fixed  attention  to  prescribed 
subjects,  and  at  prescribed  times  is  especially  difficult. 
Yet  difficult  as  it  is  attention  must  he  obtained.  It  cannot 
be  obtained,  however,  by  demand  or  entreaty;  by  urging 
upon  the  pupils  the  importance  of  the  subject,  and  the 
brevity  of  school  time. 

These  last  are  very  valid  considerations  with  the 
mature,  but  nothing  can  be  relied  upon  to  secure  the 
attention  of  the  child,  for  any  considerable  period,  but  a 
genuine  interest  in  the  subject  itself. 

1.  Attention  in  the  recitation  may  be  secured  by  dis- 
cipline or  by  stimulus.  By  the  former  the  mind  becomes 
stolid  and  indifferent  to  education.  In  the  latter  there 
is  life,  and  hence  growth. 

Napoleon  III.,  having  stationed  soldiers  at  the  polls 
was  able  to  say  that  the  election  was  peaceful.  There 
should  be  in  the  recitation  attention  through  inner  life. 

How  can  such  attention  be  stimulated  ? 

a.  By  a  familiar  and  sympathetic  manner  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  461 

b.  By  having  the  pupils '  picture  out '  the  thought, 
or  represent  it  by  doing. 

c.  By  basing  illustrations  on  the  pupils'  experi- 
ence. 

d.  By  varying  the  usual  regularity  and  routine. 

(1.)  Illustrate  each  point. 

(2.)  Upon  what  principles  of  mind  are  they  based  ? 

2.  Interest  in  the  subjects  themselves. 
How  may  this  be  inculcated? 

a.  By  employing  books  adapted  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  pupils. 

b.  By  studying  the  subject  outside  of  the  book  as 
well  as  in  it ;  i.  e.  by  making  the  text-book  merely  a  text- 
hook. 

c.  By  stimulating  original  production  (written 
exercises)  as  against  the  tendency  to  book  work. 

d.  By  recognizing  and  commending  the  germs  of 
thought  and  effort,  that  may  be  usually  detected  among 
the  crudities  and  imperfections. 

(\.)  II lustrate  each  point. 

(2.)  Upon  what  principles  of  mind  are  they  based  ? 

3.  Interest  in  general  mental  growth. 
In  what  ways  may  this  be  fostered  ? 

a.  By  clearness  in  teaching. 
Just  what  constitutes  clearness  in  teaching  is  a  point 
that  requires  to  be  more  definitely  settled.    It  should 
be  understood  that  the  prominent  marks  of  clearness 
are: 

(1.)  The  setting  forth  of  a  general  plany  or  frame' 

work  of  the  thought. 
Then  every  detail  falls  into  its  place;  the  fragments 


462  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

exhibit  the  relations  of  the  whole ;  the  maze  becomes 
mapped.  The  pupil  is  then,  even  in  respect  of  the 
difficult  thoughts,  able  to  say  with  the  poet,  "  A  mighty 
maze,  but  not  without  a  plan."  Grasp  of  this  kind  gives 
to  the  pupil  a  sense  of  power  and  conquest.  It  makes 
deep  thought  interesting,  inclines  to  new  efforts,  gives 
mental  breadth  and  stimulation. 

(2.)  The  use  by  the  teacher  of  precise,  clear-cut  lan- 
guage. 

(3.)   The  making  prominent  of  the  salient  point. 

(4.)  The  change  of  formuloe,  as  soon  as  the  pupils 
begin  to  recite  by  rote. 

(5.)  The  concentration  of  the  attention  exactly  upon 
the  difficulty. 

(6.)  The  quiet  leading  on  of  confused  answers  till  the 
confusion  and  the  exact  point  of  the  confusion  are  manifest. 

(7.)  The  pointed  cross  questioning  of  half-knowledge, 
so  as  to  both  make  apparent  the  incompleteness,  and  indicate 
the  avenue  to  the  full  knowledge. 

For  a  lesson  to  have  these  marks  of  clearness  is  for  it 
to  have  stimulus.  It  is  a  pleasurable  incentive  to  the 
growing  mind  to  participate  in  the  unravelling  of 
every  tangle  in  his  thought,  and  to  take  part  in  brush- 
ing aside,  one  by  one,  every  cobweb  that  obstructs  his 
mental  vision^  until  every  detail,  in  its  relations  is 
clearly  seen. 

b.  By  avoiding  too  much  explanation. 

c.  By  arranging  it  so  that  the  pupils  shall  be  joint 
sharers  with  the  teacher  in  his  researches. 


THE  THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  463 

(Natural  science  affords  the  richest  field  in  this  respect 
Why?) 

(1.)  Illustrate  each  point. 

(2.)  Upon  what  principles  of  mind  are  they  based  ? 

QUESTIONINQ. 

Nature. 

If  information  were  the  end  of  the  school,  the  teacher's 
qualifications  should  be:  knowledge  of  his  subjects; 
general  knowledge  of  mind ;  pleasant  manner;  fluency  of 
speech ;  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  description  and 
narration ;  and  richness  of  illustration.  But  the  design 
of  the  school  being  to  make  the  mind  skillful  and  strong, 
the  teacher  must  be  equipped  with  one  other  instru- 
ment in  addition  to  the  above — the  power  to  question  with 
skill  and  judgment ;  and  no  other  single  means,  perhaps, 
justly  assumes  the  importance  of  this  power. 

Questioning  is  an  art.  That  is,  it  is  a  practical  power 
— something  that  is  learned  not  by  hearing  lectures  up- 
on it,  but  by  doing  it.  Proficiency  in  it  is  learned  aa  in 
every  other  art,  by  practice.  Education  in  it  comes 
through  experience.  To  become  a  skillful  questioner 
requires  patient,  watchful  practice.  But  if  that  were 
all,  it  would  be  sufficient  to  say  to  the  young  teacher, — 
*'  Take  charge  of  a  school ;  begin  work  with  your  classes; 
and  learn  the  art  of  questioning  by  actual  questioning." 

Questioning  is  not  only  an  art,  however;  it  is  also  a 
science.  That  is,  the  art  of  questioning  rests  upon  a 
body  of  principles ;  and  the  teacher  should  know  the 
principle  underlying  any  given  practice  in  questioning; 
he  should  be  acquainted  with   the   general  principles 


464  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

that  he  is  to  apply  to  specific  cases ;  he  is  to  know  the 
why  as  well  as  the  how. 

Purpose. 

1.  The  first  purpose  is  to  disclose  to  the  teacher,  be- 
fore he  attempts  to  present  a  new  thought,  the  actual 
condition  of  the  pupil's  mind ;  to  reconnoiter,  in  order 
to  see  how  the  child's  ideas  are  encamped ;  to  plough  up 
the  mental  soil,  so  that  the  mental  germs  may  have  free- 
dom to  spring  into  stronger  life ;  to  make  the  learner 
conscious  of  the  limits  of  his  knowledge,  and  to  open 
to  his  mental  view  the  latent  known.  In  one  sense  the 
aim  is  to  apply  the  "torpedo's  electricity,"  and  in  an- 
other to  awaken  the  stimulus  of  curiosity. 

2.  The  second  aim  of  questioning  is  to  stimulate, 
suggest,  and  direct,  but  not  to  tell,  or  unduly  assist ;  to 
lead  the  mind  to  act  upon  the  new  knowledge  and 
assimilate  it;  to  cause  the  mind  to  connect  the  new 
knowledge  with  the  old  by  its  innumerable  relations, 
i.  e.,  to  organize  its  knowledge ;  to  awaken  new  desires, 
and  to  develop  new  capacities  for  satisfying  those  de- 
sires. Indeed,  the  object  of  this  kind  of  questioning  is 
almost  identical  with  that  of  school  education — the 
pointing  out  of  the  knowledge  that  is  of  most  worth,  the 
creating  of  a  desire  for  it,  and  the  developing  of  the  poiver 
to  obtain  it. 

3.  The  third  design  of  questioning  is  to  test  whether 
the  work  indicated  under  the  second  design  has  been 
done ;  to  examine  upon  work  assigned ;  to  see  what  re- 
mains in  the  pupil's  mind;  to  determine  what  added 
power  he  has  at  the  conclusion  of  a  given  work. 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  465 

Kinds. 

1.  The  search  question.    This  may  also  be  termed 
the  reconnoiter  question,  and  the  Socratic  question. 

2.  The  stimulative-directive  question.     This  has  been 
called  the  instructive  or  Socratic  question. 

3.  The  test  question.  (Examination  oral  or  written.) 
Each  of  these  classes  of  questions   may  be  set  forth 

more  clearly  by  an  illustration. 

Thus,  in  illustration  of  the  first  may  be  cited  a  por- 
tion of  Socrates'  dialogue  with  Meno. 

Meno  asks  whether  virtue  is  acquired  by  teaching  or 
by  practice.  Socrates  replies  that  he  does  not  as  yet 
know  what  virtue  is,  and  has  never  known  any  one  who 
did. 

*  Then  he  cannot  have  met  Gorgias  when  he  was  at 
Athens.' 

*Yes,  Socrates  had  met  him,  but  he  has  a  bad  memory, 
and  has  forgotten  what  Gorgias  said.' 

*Will  Meno  tell  him  his  own  notion,  which  is  proba- 
bly not  very  different  from  that  of  Gorgias?' 

*  O  yes — nothing  easier ;  there  is  the  virtue  of  a  man, 
of  a  woman,  of  an  old  man,  and  of  a  child ;  there  is  a 
virtue  of  every  age  and  state  of  life,  all  of  which  may 
be  easily  described.' 

By  the  cross-questioning  of  Socrates,  Meno  was  com- 
pelled to  frequently  change  his  position,  until  he  finally 
became  confused  and  complained  of  the  negative  qual- 
ity of  Socrates'  teaching,  saying  that  the  conversation 
has  had  the  efiect  of  a  torpedo's  shock  upon  him. 

*When  he  talks  with  other  persons  he  has  plenty  to  say 

81 


466  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

about  virtue,  but  in  the  presence  of  Socrates,  his  thoughts 
seem  to  desert  him.' 

In  order  to  demonstrate  the  province  of  this  kind  of 
questioning,  Socrates  calls  to  him  one  of  the  attendants 
of  Meno,  and  the  following  dialogue,  substantially, 
ensues : — 

Socrates.     What  figure  is  this? 


Boy.     A  square. 

S.     What  do  you  see  as  to  the  lines  ? 

B.     They  are  all  equal. 

S.    May  a  square  be  of  any  size  ? 

B.     Certainly. 

S.  If  each  side  be  two  feet  in  length,  how  many 
square  feet  will  it  contain  ? 

B.     Four. 

S.  Can  there  be  another  square  just  twice  as  large  as 
this? 

B.  Yes. 

S.     How  many  square  feet  will  it  contain? 

B.     Eight. 

aS^.  Tell  me  the  length  of  the  line  which  forms  a  side 
of  that  double  square. 

B,     Clearly,  Socrates,  it  will  be  double. 

S.  Do  you  observe,  Meno,  that  I  am  not  teaching 
the  boy  anything,  but  only  asking  him  questions ;  and 
now  he  fancies  that  he  knows  how  long  a  line  is  neces- 
sary in  order  to  produce  a  figure  of  eight  square  feet ; 
does  he  not  ? 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 


467 


Meno.    Yes. 

S.     And  does  he  really  know  ? 

M.     Certainly  not. 

S.  He  only  guesses  that,  because  the  square  is 
double,  the  line  is  double. 

M.    True, 

S.    Observe  him  while  he  recalls  the  steps  in  order. 

(7b  the  boy.)  Do  you  assert  that  a  double  space 
comes  from  a  double  line  ? 

B.    Yes. 

S,  But  does  not  this  line  become  doubled  if  we  add 
another  such  line  here  ? 


B.     Certainly. 

S.    And  four  such  lines  will  make  a  space  contain- 
ing eight  square  feet  ? 
B.    Yes. 
S.    Let  us  describe  such  a  figure : 


fSt 

Is  not  that  what  you  would  say  is  the  figure  of  eight 
square  feet? 
B.    Yes. 
S.    And  are  there    not  these  four  divisions  in  the 


468  THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

figure,  each  of  which  is  equal  to  the  figure  of  four  square 
feet? 

B.    True. 

S.    And  is  not  that  four  fours  ? 

J5.     Certainly. 

S.    And  four  fours  is  not  the  double  ? 

B.    No,  indeed. 

S.     But  how  much  ? 

B.     Four  times  as  much  ? 

S,  Therefore,  the  double  line  has  formed  a  space 
not  twice  but  four  times  as  great  ? 

B.    True. 

S.    And  four  fours  are — ^ 

B.    Sixteen.  ^ 

S.  What  lines  would  give  you  a  space  of  eight 
square  feet,  as  this  gives  one  of  sixteen  square  feet ;  do 
you  see  ? 

B,    Yes. 

S,  And  the  space  of  four  square  feet  is  made  from 
half  this  line  ? 

B.    Yes. 

S.  Good ;  and  is  not  a  space  of  eight  square  feet  twice 
the  size  of  this  and  half  the  size  of  the  other  ? 

B,    Certainly. 

S.  Such  a  space  will  be  formed  upon  a  line  greater 
than  this  one  and  less  than  that  one  ? 

B.    Yes ;  that  is  what  I  think. 

8.  Very  good ;  I  like  to  hear  you  say  that  you  think. 
Is  not  this  a  line  of  two  feet  and  that  of  four  ? 

B.    Yes. 

8.    Then  the  line  which  forms  the  side  of  eight  square 


THE  THEORY  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 


469 


feet  ought  to  be  more  than  this  line  of  two  feet,  and  less 
than  the  other  of  four  feet  ? 

B.     It  ought 

S.     How  long  will  it  be? 

B.    Three  feet. 

S.  Then  if  we  add  a  half  line  to  this  line  of  two  feet 
that  will  be  a  line  of  three  feet. 


Here  are  two  feet  and  there  is  one.    And  on  the  other 
side,  here  are  two  also  and  there  is  one : 


And  that  makes  the  figures  of  which  you  speak  ? 
B.    Yes. 

8.    But  if  there  are  three  square  feet  this  way,  and 
three  square  feet  that  way,  the  whole  space  will  be  three 
three-square  feet? 
B.    That  is  evident. 

And  how  many  are  three  three-square-feet  ? 
Nine  square  feet. 

And  what  is  the  double  of  four  square  feet? 
Eight  square  feet. 

Then  a  figure  of  eight  square  feet  is  not  made  out 
of  a  line  of  three  feet  ? 
B.    No. 


8, 
B. 

8. 
B. 

8 


470  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

S.  But  from  what  line  ?  Tell  me  exactly ;  and  if  you 
would  rather  not  reckon,  show  me  the  line. 

B,     Indeed,  Socrates,  I  do  not  know. 

S.  Do  you  see,  Meno,  what  advances  he  has  made  ? 
He  did  not  know  at  first,  and  he  does  not  know  now, 
what  the  side  of  a  figure  of  eight  square  feet  is,  but  then 
he  thought  that  he  knew,  and  answered  confidently  as 
if  he  knew,  and  had  no  difficulty  ;  but  now  he  has  a  dif- 
ficulty, and  neither  knows  nor  fancies  that  he  knows. 

M.    True. 

S.     Is  he  not  better  off  in  knowing  his  ignorance  ? 

M.     I  think  that  he  is. 

S.  If  we  have  made  him  doubt,  and  given  him  the 
''  torpedo's  shock  "  have  we  done  him  any  harm  ? 

M.     1  think  not. 

>S'.  We  have  certainly  done  something  that  may  assist 
him  in  finding  out  the  truth  of  the  matter ;  and  now  he 
will  wish  to  remedy  his  ignorance,  but  then  he  would 
have  been  ready  to  tell  all  the  world  that  the  double 
space  should  have  a  double  side. 

M,    True. 

S.  But  do  you  suppose  that  he  would  ever  have 
inquired,  or  learned  what  he  fancied  he  knew  and  did 
not  know,  until  he  had  fallen  into  perplexity  under  the 
idea  that  he  did  not  know  and  had  desired  to  know  ? 

M.    I  think  not. 

S.    Then  he  was  the  better  for  the  torpedo's  touch  ? 

M.     I  think  he  was. 

Socrates  was  a  philosopher,  a  profound  student  of 
mind  action,  and  the  greatest  of  secular  teachers,  and 
his  questioning  is  worthy  of  thoughtful  study. 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  471 

The  inferences  from  this  example  of  the  first  kind  of 
questioning  are  plain : 

a.  The  teacher  is,  as  a  preliminary  step,  to  obtain 
light  as  to  what  the  pupil  already  possesses,  and  as  to 
his  existing  mental  power,  in  order  that  he  may  the  bet- 
ter see  how  to  adapt  his  teaching  to  the  pupil's  condition. 

b.  The  pupil  must  be  led  to  see  what  he  does  not 
know,  i.  e.,  his  difficulty. 

c.  The  pupil  is  to  be  shown  his  latent  known, 
i.e.,  the  foundation  that  experience  has  given  him. 

d.  The  desire  for  new  power  and  added  knowledge 
must  be  implanted. 

All  these  things  are  to  be  accomplished  by  means  of 
the  search  or  preliminary  questions. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  second  kind  of  questioning, 
the  continuation  of  Socrates'  dialogue  with  Meno's 
attendant  will  serve.  In  the  first  kind  the  boy  had  been 
shown  his  difficulty,  and  had  had  his  curiosity  aroused 
as  to  its  proper  solution.  To  this  solution  Socrates  pro- 
ceeds : 

S.  Mark  now,  Meno,  the  farther  development.  I  shall 
only  ask  him,  and  not  instruct  him,  and  he  shall  share 
the  inquiry  with  me ;  and  do  you  watch  and  see  if  you  find 
me  telling  or  explaining  anything  to  him,  instead  of  elicit- 
ing his  opinion.  (To  the  boy.)  What  is  this  I  have 
drawn? 


472 


THE   THEORY   OF  THE   SCHOOL. 


B. 

S. 


A  square  of  four  square  feet. 
And  now  I  add  what  ? 


B.    Three  other  squares,  each  equal  to  the  first. 

S.     We  have,  then,  what  ? 

B.     Four  equal  spaces. 

S.  How  many  times  is  this  space  as  large  as  the 
former? 

B.     Four  times. 

S.    But  it  ought  to  have  been  how  many  times  as  large? 

B.     Two  times. 

S.  Draw  a  line  from  this  corner  to  that  one,  and  so 
in  each  space. 


I/N 


/I   I   l\ 


1/ 


N/l 


What  does  each  line  do  to  each  space? 
B.     It  divides  it  into  two  equal  parts. 
S.    What  is  true  of  the  lines  ? 
B.     They  are  equal. 
S.     How  much  space  do  they  inclose  ? 
B.     I  do  not  understand. 


THE  THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  478 

f — 

S.  How  much  of  the  four  spaces  have  these  lines 
cut  off? 

B.    Half  of  them. 

S.    How  much  was  there  in  the  first  space? 

B.    Sixteen  square  feet. 

5.     Then  how  many  in  this  ? 

B.    Eight  square  feet. 

S.    From  what  line  do  you  get  this  figure? 

B,     From  this  one. 

S.     How  may  you  describe  it  ? 

B,  By  saying  it  extends  from  one  corner  to  its  oppo- 
site. 

S.     What  is  the  line  called? 

B.     I  do  not  know. 

S.     Show  me  other  lines  like  it. 

Very  good.  Such  a  line  is  called  a  diagonal.  Point 
out  other  diagonals. 

What  is  the  double  of  a  space? 

B.  The  square  of  its  diagonal. 

S.  What  do  you  say  of  him,  Meno  ?  Were  not  all 
these  answers  given  out  of  his  own  head  ? 

M.  Yes,  they  were  all  his  own. 

From  this  example  of  the  second  kind  of  question- 
ing, the  distinctive  marks  of  the  class  appear: 

a.  They  suggest  but  do  not  inform. 

b.  They  tend  to  establish  a  loidcal  connection  be- 
tween the  old  and  the  new ;  to  make  the  new  a  devel- 
opment from  the  old.  They  lead  to  the  expansion  of 
the  germs  that  lie  hidden  in  the  child's  mind. 

The  third  kind  of  questioning  needs  no  illustration. 


474  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

It  is  exemplified  in  all  oral  and  written  examination, 
and  by  recapitulations  at  the  close  of  lessons,  or  divis- 
ions of  lessons.  The  distinctive  marks  of  the  third  kind 
of  questioning  are : 

a.  It  tests  whether  the  pupil  has  added  power. 

b.  It  tests  whether  the  knowledge  has  been  accu- 
rately learned  and  thoroughly  organized. 

c.  It  tends  to  deepen  and  more  firmly  fix  what 
has  been  gained. 

Structure. 

The  questions  should  be  simple,  short,  and  adapted  to 
the  capacity  of  the  children. 

They  should  be  such  that  the  talk  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  is  at  the  minimum,  while  fullness  and  freedom 
of  expression  is  required  by  them  on  the  part  of  the 
pupil.  Their  tendency  should  be  to  keep  the  teacher 
and  his  work  in  the  background,  and  to  make  promi- 
nent, the  pupil  and  his  work.  Plainness  and  brevity 
are  the  desideratum. 

Another  point  in  regard  to  structure  is  that  the  ques- 
tions should  not  he  information-giving.  A  good  question 
does  not  convey  information.  Each  fact  or  idea  should 
if  possible  be  educed  from  the  pupil.  This  indicates 
that  the  phraseology  of  the  text  is  to  be  avoided  in  the 
construction  of  the  questions.  If  the  words  of  the 
book  are  employed  in  the  question,  the  answer  is  sug- 
gested, and  the  pupil  thereby  deprived  of  the  mental 
exercise  that  is  the  real  aim  of  the  questioning. 

A  third  thought  in  regard  to  the  structure  is  that  the 
question  should  be  definite.     An  indefinite,   equivocal 


THE   THEORY  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  475 

question  tends  not  to  concentrate  the  mental  energy 
upon  the  point  desired,  but  to  divide  the  mental  energy. 
The  tendency  is  also  to  inculate  the  habit  of  guessing,  a 
habit  fatal  to  accurate  thought. 

Segutnct. 

The  first  thought  concerning  sequence  is  that  the 
questions  in  a  lesson  should  constitute  a  logical  series. 

Desultory,  random  questioning  produces  but  little 
that  is  valuable  however  good  the  question  may  be  in  its 
structure,  and  however  well  adapted  it  may  be  to  call 
forth  the  activity  of  the  pupil's  mind.  The  claims  of 
both  mental  discipline  and  knowledge  require  that  each 
question  shall  have  a  logical  connection  with  the  pre- 
ceding one ;  that  each  question  shall  seem  to  grow  out 
of  the  preceding  answer;  and  that  each  answer  shall  be 
the  explanation  of  a  point  that  was  brought  forward  by 
the  previous  answer,  but  not  made  clear  by  it.  This 
requires  a  habit  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  of  so  ques- 
tioning that  each  thought  advanced  b^r  the  pupil  shall 
be  an  outgrowth  of  his  previous  thought  and  a  prepara- 
tion for  the  succeeding  one.  The  true  sequence  in  ques- 
tioning is  one  that  portrays  the  order  in  which  the 
instrument  for  the  mind's  exercise — the -subject — would 
naturally  unfold  itself  in  the  mind  of  a  trained,  logical 
thinker. 

While,  however,  the  teacher  will  have  a  logical  plan, 
and  a  logical  series  of  questions,  he  should  not  be  in 
bondage  to  them.  He  should  be  master  of  all  his 
means  to  that  degree  that  he  can  readily  readjust,  and 
adapt  them  to  the  wants  of  the  pupils  as  disclosed  by 


476  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

the  progress  of  the  lesson.  Unlooked-for  misconceptions 
may  appear,  the  need  of  more  ample  illustration  than 
was  contemplated  may  become  evident,  and  in  various 
ways  the  children's  mental  needs  may  require  digression 
from  the  pre-arranged  questions.  The  main  purpose  of 
the  lesson  should,  however,  be  adhered  to,  at  least  to 
that  degree  that  no  useless  digressions  shall  occur. 

The  second  thought  in  regard  to  sequence  is  that  the 
question  should  be  addressed  to  the  class  as  a  whole,  before 
the  pupil  who  is  to  answer  it  is  named.  This  is  based 
upon  the  principle  that  the  aim  of  the  recitation  is  to 
give  mental  skill  and  strength.  If  the  question  is  pre- 
sented to  the  whole  class,  every  mind  receives  it  and  is 
exercised  upon  it,  and  is  ready,  therefore,  either  to 
answer  it  intelligently,  or  to  discuss  intelligently  the  an- 
swer given,  in  addition  to  the  mental  strength  gained 
by  considering  it.  If  the  pupil  who  is  to  answer  the 
question  is  named  first,  and  the  question  is  then  asked, 
the  above  result  is,  to  a  degree,  reversed.  While  this  is 
to  be  the  general  rule,  it  should  not,  however,  be  invari- 
ably adhered  to  as  such  adherence  would  tend  to  make 
the  recitation  stereotyped  and  monotonous,  and  the 
mind  recoils  from  monotony. 

A  third  point  under  sequence  is  that  there  should  be 
that  continuity  and  steady  flow  of  question  and  answer 
which  is  the  result  of  animation  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher.  This  animation  can  arise  only  from  an  ample 
knowledge  of  the  subject,  or  exercise-ground,  special 
preparation  for  the  given  recitation,  a  real  interest  in 
the  instrument  of  training,  i.  e.,  the  ideas  being  dealt 
with,  and  pleasure  in  arousing,  strengthening,  and  direct- 


THE  THEORY   OF   THE  SCHOOL.  477^ 

ing  the  action  of  the  mental  faculties  of  the  pupils. 
Such  a  condition  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  will  result 
in  giving  vigor  to  his  teaching,  in  making  his  illustra- 
tions graphic,  in  imparting  earnestness  to  his  manner, 
animation  to  his  voice,  and  an  active,  impressive  char- 
acter to  his  questioning. 

Experience  shows  that  slow,  dull,  heavy  and  involved 
questioning  is  wearisome  to  children,  and  deprives  a 
lesson  of  its  interest.     It  is  necessary,  therefore  : 

1.  To  avoid  long  pauses  between  an  answer  and  its 
succeeding  question. 

2.  To  vary  the  phraseology  of  the  questions. 

3.  To  avoid  monotony  of  tone. 

4.  To  be  animated  in  manner,  and  thus  kindle  inter- 
est and  enthusiasm  in  the  lesson,  by  exhibiting  them  in 
the  questioning. 

Such  considerations  as  these  militate  against  the  use 
of  printed  questions,  or  questions  pre-arranged  by  the 
teacher,  and  brought  before  the  class  in  the  form  of 
*  notes.'  It  cannot  be  too  often  iterated  that  the  teacher 
should  make  special  preparation  for  each  lesson,  and 
have  in  mind  a  logical  plan,  and  a  logical  series  of  ques- 
tions; neither  can  it  be  too  often  repeated  that  the 
teacher  is  to  go  before  his  class  untrammeled  by  written 
plan,  written  questions,  notes,  or  text  books ;  for  the 
minds  of  pupil  and  teacher  must  come  into  actual  con- 
tact. And  pre-arranged  questions,  whether  printed  or 
in  notes,  serve  to  divide  the  mental  energy  of  the  teach- 
er, and  at  the  same  time  do  not  have  the  life  and  force 
of  questions  that  are  the  outgrowth  of  two  things : 


478  THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

a.  Careful  previous  preparation. 

b.  Watchful  consideration  of  the  actual  needs  of 
the  pupil  at  all  stages  of  the  recitation.  The  line  of 
questioning  is  to  be  carefully  thought  out  before  the 
recitation,  but  in  the  presence  of  the  class,  questioning 
takes  any  direction  whatever,  is  fragmentary,  changing 
as  the  difficulties  of  the  pupils'  minds  change,  disre- 
garding all  precise  plan,  provided  that  the  general  aim 
is  held  in  view,  and  a  close,  laborious,  and  exact  exer- 
cise of  mind  is  the  result. 

Under  sequence,  may  be  considered,  in  the  fourth 
place,  reception  of  answers. 

A  pupil  should  be  required  to  answer  the  question 
given. 

An  answer  as  given  by  the  first  pupil  reciting,  may 
be: 

a.  Right. 

b.  Wrong. 

c.  Partly  right. 

It  is  in  violation  of  the  principle  that  the  aim  of  the 
recitation  is  to  train  the  mind,  if  in  the  first  case  the 
teacher  states  at  once  that  the  answer  is  correct.  He 
should  receive  the  answer,  withhold  his  decision,  obtain 
the  thought  of  the  different  pupils,  with  their  reasons, 
and  having  thoroughly  exercised  the  minds  of  the  class 
upon  the  point  in  question,  decide  definitely  and  clearly. 

The  procedure  in  the  second  case  should  be  the  same 
with  this  addition — at  the  conclusion  of  the  discussion, 
the  question  should  be  again  presented  to  the  one  who, 
at  first,  gave  the  wrong  answer,  and  to  all  who  subse- 
quently answered  incorrectly. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  479 

In  regard  to  answers  that  are  partly  right,  the  decision 
should  be  reserved  and  the  point  discussed,  as  in  the 
previous  cases,  after  which  the  teacher  should  recast  his 
question,  add  a  subordinate  one  here  and  there  so  as  to 
disentangle  the  truthful  element  from  the  incorrect  one, 
and  then  present  again  his  original  question  to  the  pupil 
who  first  answered,  and  to  the  class. 

The  fifth  thought  in  regard  to  sequence  is,  that,  as  a 
rule,  the  question  should  not  be  repeated.  It  is  obvious  that 
the  habit  of  repeating  the  question  on  demand,  will  fos- 
ter inattention,  and  the  opposite  course,  attention. 

To  sum  up  all:  the  aim  of  questioning,  as  indicated  in 
the  statement  of  the  purpose  is  to  arouse  thought,  to 
promote  mental  activity,  to  develop  accuracy  in  all  the 
mental  faculties  instead  of  merely  cultivating  the  verbal 
memory  at  the  expense  of  the  higher  faculties  and 
tendencies.  That  questioning  is  best  which  best  stimu- 
lates mental  action  in  the  pupil ;  which  according  to 
the  principle  of  Jacotot,  gives  him  a  habit  of  thinking 
and  inquiring  for  himself;  which  tends  to  render  him 
independent;  which  makes  him  a  skillful  inquirer  after, 
rather  than  a  receiver  of  truth.  The  success  of  ques- 
tioning, as  of  teaching,  is  to  be  determined,  not  by  the 
amount  of  information  that  is  imparted,  but  by  the  de- 
gree to  which  the  judgment  of  the  pupils  has  been 
strengthened,  and  their  capacity  to  learn  enlarged  and 
skilled ;  by  the  degree  in  which  it  imparts  to  them  an 
inquiring  spirit,  which  is  a  far  surer  basis  for  future  ac- 
quisitions than  any  amount  of  mere  information  can  be. 
It  has  been  truly  said  that  Socrates  originated  a  system 
of  questioning  that  has  been  searching  the  world  ever 


480  THE   THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

since  it  was  employed,  and  that  has  quickened  the 
perception  of  all  generations;  so  that  the  result  was  that 
he  wh6  taught  nothing  produced  disciples  that  learned 
everything. 


EXPLANATION. 


There  are  two  processes,  both  explanatory,  which  re- 
quire to  be  distinguished — explanation  proper  and  illus- 
tration. 

1.  Explanation  Proper. 

"  A  word,  as  '  spectacle '  would  be  explained  by  say- 
ing that  it  means  a  view  or  scene,  or  all  that  we  can  see 
around  us,  or  by  some  similar  phrase. 

The  proverb,  'What  a  man  sows,  that  shall  he  also 
reap,'  would  be  explained  by  saying  that  the  conse- 
quences of  our  actions  will  be  influenced  by  their  char- 
acter, or  the  like. 

And  so  the  process  of  sugar  making  would  be  ex- 
plained when  an  account  of  the  successive  steps  in  the 
process  is  given. 

Explanation  proper,  then,  consists  in  stating  an  idea 
or  fact  in  its  simplest  form." 

2.  Elustration. 

Illustration  as  here  used,  includes  both  illustration 
proper  and  example. 

Kinds  of  illustration : 

Illustration  is  of  three  kinds : 
a.  Objective  Illustration. 

When  the  lesson  is  upon  an  object,  whether  an  oral 
lesson  or  a  reading  lesson,  the  thing  should  be  at  hand, 
if  possible,  so  that  the  qualities  for  which  it  is  known 
may  be  observed. 


THE   THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  481 

An  object  is  sometimes  referred  to  incidentally,  in  the 
course  of  a  lesson,  to  illustrate  some  of  its  topics ;  in 
such  a  case  the  illustration  is  seldom  satisfactory  with- 
out the  presence  of  the  thing.  This  should  not  be  neg- 
lected, as  it  often  is,  because  its  presence  is  seemingly 
immaterial ;  the  habit  of  verification  which  it  fosters  is 
invaluable  as  a  safe  guard  against  vague  or  half-formed 
ideas. 

b.  Pictorial  Illustration. 

As  it  is  but  a  comparatively  small  number  of  objects 
that  can  be  brought  under  the  notice  of  the  class,  how- 
ever, the  want  must  be  supplied  as  far  as  it  is  practica- 
ble, by  pictorial  illustration.  This  should  be  introduced 
just  at  that  point  of  the  lesson  where  it  is  needed ;  i.  e., 
after  verbal  work,  as  a  picture  will  always  be  examined 
more  efifectively  when  the  curiosity  has  been  awakened 
by  a  previous  description. 

If  the  pupil  is  led  to  first  form  the  image  for  himself 
he  will  afterward  compare  with  interest  his  ideal  one 
with  the  real. 

The  picture  should  not  be  presented  to  him  before  it 
is  to  be  used;  otherwise  it  will  supersede  h  is  imagination 
and  its  use  will  be  less  impressive. 

c.  Verbal  Illustration. 
Verbal  illustration  is  two-fold : — 

(1).  The  substitution  of  the  particular  for  the  gen- 
eral. 

Thus  the  word  "spectacle"  would  be  illustrated  by 
presenting  to  the  imagination  of  the  pupil  some  con- 
spicuous point  and  causing  him  to  realize  that  all  that 
is  to  be  seen  from  it  may  be  termed  a  "spectacle." 


482  THE   THEORY    OF   THE   SCHOOL. 

The  illustration  of  "Whatsoever  a  man  soweth,  that 
shall  he  also  reap,"  would  consist  in  referring  the  pupil 
to  the  process  of  sowing  the  seed  in  the  ground,  and  the 
corresponding  harvest. 

A  virtue  or  duty,  such  as  truthfulness  or  honesty,  is 
illustrated  in  a  story  by  which  it  is  exemplified. 

(2.)  The  substitution    of   one    particular  case  for 
another  with  which  it  is  analogous. 

Thus  "the  boiling  of  sugar  may  be  compared  to  the 
making  of  jelly,  the  melting  of  lead  to  that  of  wax, 
or  the  action  of  any  historical  character  to  some  sup- 
posed similar  one  within  one's  own  experience." 

The  marks  of  good  illustration  are  three: 

(a.)  "Illustration  should  be  apposite. 

(b.)  Illustration  should  be  interesting ;  i.  e., 
must  be  drawn  from  something  that  has  an  interest  for 
the  pupil.  This  implies  that  it  be  familiar ;  it  is  no  illus- 
tration to  refer  a  thing  or  case  which  is  unknown  to  an- 
other which  is  equally  or  more  so. 

(c.)  Illustration  should  be  clear  and  graphic." 
In  using  illustrations  two  errors  are  to  be  avoided : — 

(a.)  "The  failure  to  set  forth  the  illustration 
with  sufficient  amplitude  to  make  an  impression  on  the 
minds  of  the  class. 

(b.)  The  overburdening  of  the  lesson  with 
illustration.  Important  as  illustration  is,  it  must  be 
kept  in  its  place  of  strict  subordination  to  the  thing 
illustrated." 


THE  THEORY   OF   THE   SCHOOL.  483 


Repetition  has  already  been  referred  to  as  iteration. 

It  is  essential,  especially  in  primary  work,  because 
everything  is  new  to  the  pupils,  and  their  minds  have 
little  power  of  retaining  what  they  acquire. 

The  concluding  part  of  a  lesson  is  generally  devoted 
to  a  recapitulation  of  the  leading  points,  but  opportuni- 
ties for  incidental  repetition  continually  occur  in  the 
course  of  the  lesson  itself 

There  are  two  ways  of  repeating — the  direct  and  the 
indirect.     Both  are  necessary. 

In  the  former  the  thing  is  repeated  in  the  precise  form 
in  which  it  was  first  communicated;  the  design  being  to 
impress  the  memory. 

In  the  latter,  the  thing  is  repeated  in  another  form  ; 
i.  e.,  the  class  is  required  to  express  from  one  point  of 
view  what  was  communicated  from  another. 

This  process,  besides  appealing  to  the  memory,  is  the 
educative  process  in  every  lesson. 

PRtNCIPUS  Of  THE   RECITATION. 

1.  The  recitation  is  the  predominant  element  of  the 
school ;  all  other  agencies  being  auxiliary  to  it,  and  de- 
signed to  promote  ito  ends. 

2.  The  true  recitation  is  one  in  which  the  mind  of 
the  teacher  addresses  the  individual  minds  of  the 
pupils,  in  accordance  with  the  actual  condition  of  the 
various  minds,  in  order  to  lead  them  into  communion 
with  the  mind,  made  external  to  a  degree,  in  the  exer- 
cise-ground. 

3.  The  purpose  of  recitation  is : — 


484  THE   THEORY   OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

a.  To  give  the  mind  strength  and  skill,  by  exercis- 
ing it  upon  the  ideas  involved  in  the  object  of  study. 

b.  To  give  an  insight  into  the  true  method  of 
study. 

c.  To  test  as  to  the  knowledge  and  power  gained 
by  the  preparation  for  the  lesson. 

d.  To  supplement    that  which    the  pupil  has 
gained  in  his  preparation. 


^^ 


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